Vespasian, in his ninth consulship, has a…

Emperor Zhang, being close to his Ma uncles, has wanted to create them marquesses from the beginning of his reign.

This measure had initially been rebuffed by Empress Dowager Ma, who had found it inappropriate.

In 79, however, he creates them marquesses over her objection and over their requests to only be made acting marquesses.

Empress Dowager Ma, who has provided Emperor Zhang with abundant good counsel, dies in this year.

Even after her death, Emperor Zhang does not honor his birth mother Consort Jia as his mother, but merely permits her to take on the style of an imperial prince.

After his adoptive mother's death, Emperor Zhang continues to be a diligent emperor, but within the palace, there is much struggle between Empress Dou and the other imperial consorts, which will eventually lead to political instability.

While Empress Dowager Ma was alive, she had selected two daughters of Song Yang as consorts for Emperor Zhang.

In 78, the elder Consort Song had given birth to a son named Liu Qing, and because Empress Dou is without a male child, Prince Qing is created crown prince in 79.

The Consorts Song had been greatly favored by Empress Dowager Ma.

Later in 79, however, Empress Dou (perhaps remembering Empress Dowager Ma's example) adopts the son of another imperial consort, Consort Liang, Liu Zhao, as her own son, and she plots, along with her mother Princess Piyang and her brothers, to have her adopted son made crown prince.

She has her brothers collect dossiers on the faults of the Song clan while bribing the servants and eunuchs of Consorts Song to gather their own damaging information.

Vespasian is immediately succeeded by his son Titus, who is supported by the Praetorian Guard and the Senate.

Because of his many alleged vices, many Romans fear at this point that he would be another Nero.

Against these expectations, however, Titus will prove to be an effective Emperor and will become well-loved by the population, who praise him highly when they find that he possesses the greatest virtues instead of vices.

One of his first acts as Emperor is to publicly order a halt to trials based on treason charges, which have long plagued the principate.

The law of treason, or maiestas law, was originally intended to prosecute those who had corruptly 'impaired the people and majesty of Rome' by any revolutionary action.

Under Augustus, however, this custom had been revived and applied to cover slander or libelous writings as well, eventually leading to a long cycle of trials and executions under such emperors as Tiberius, Caligula and Nero, spawning entire networks of informers that have terrorized Rome's political system for decades.

Titus puts n end to this practice, against himself or anyone else, declaring: "It is impossible for me to be insulted or abused in any way.

For I do naught that deserves censure, and I care not for what is reported falsely.

As for the emperors who are dead and gone, they will avenge themselves in case anyone does them a wrong, if in very truth they are demigods and possess any power."

(Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVI.19) Consequently, no senators will be put to death during his reign; he thus keeps to his promise that he would assume the office of Pontifex Maximus "for the purpose of keeping his hands unstained".

(Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Titus) The informants are publicly punished and banished from the city, and Titus further prevents abuses by introducing legislation that make it unlawful for persons to be tried under different laws for the same offense.

Finally, when Berenice returns to Rome, he sends her away.

As Emperor he will become known for his generosity, and Suetonius states that upon realizing he had brought no benefit to anyone during a whole day he remarked, "Friends, I have lost a day.” Although his administration is marked by a relative absence of major military or political conflicts, Titus faceds a number of major disasters during his brief reign.

On August 24, 79, two months after his accession, Mount Vesuvius erupts, resulting in the almost complete destruction of life and property in the cities and resort communities around the Bay of Naples.

Reconstruction of the Roman resort towns of Pompeii and neighboring Herculaneum is still in progress seventeen years after the great earthquake On the morning of August 24, 79, the sudden, violent eruption of Mount Vesuvius buries Pompeii, Stabiae, and a number of smaller settlements under a thick layer of lava, stone, and ash.

When the eruption ceases on the second day, more than two thousand of Pompeii’s inhabitants have perished in the layer of ash and volcanic debris that covers the city to a depth of about twenty feet (six meters).

The scientific curiosity of Pliny the Elder leads to his death by asphyxiation when he approaches too close to Mount Vesuvius on its eruption.

His nephew, Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus, called Pliny the Younger, delivers an eyewitness account of the calamity in two letters written to the historian Tacitus.

Mudflows from Vesuvius cover the town of Herculaneum in a layer of hot mud (not hot ashes, as at nearby Pompeii) to a depth of fifty to sixty-five feet (fifteen to twenty meters) thick.

All but a few of the approximately four thousand inhabitants of Herculaneum apparently escape.

As soon as the ashes cool, survivors attempt to dig out their possessions (but Pompeii will later be all but forgotten).

The Villa of the Mysteries is one of the many structures buried in the eruption.

Titus appoints two ex-consuls to organize and coordinate the relief effort, while personally donating large amounts of money from the imperial treasury to aid the victims of the volcano.

Agricola, who establishes a good reputation as an administrator as well as a commander by reforming the widely corrupt corn levy, introduces romanizing measures, encouraging communities to build towns on the Roman model and educating the sons of the native nobility in the Roman manner.

Nero is primarily known as a universally hated tyrant, but there is evidence that for much of his reign, he remained highly popular in the eastern provinces.

Reports that Nero had in fact survived the assassination attempts are fueled by the vague circumstances surrounding his death and several prophecies foretelling his return.

According to Cassius Dio, Terentius Maximus, a Roman also known as the Pseudo-Nero, resembles Nero in voice and appearance and, like him, sings to the lyre.

Terentius establishes a following in Asia Minor but is soon forced to flee beyond the Euphrates, taking refuge with the Parthians, where he tries to gain their support by claiming that they owe him (claiming as Nero) some requital for the return of Armenia.

Artabanus III, a rival for the crown of the Parthian Empire during the reign of Pacorus II, against whom he has revolted, both receives him and makes preparations to reinstate him to Rome.

He is executed when his true identity is revealed.

Paul’s former assistant Timothy is eventually created bishop of Ephesus, and in about 80 is martyred here when he protests orgies accompanying the worship of Artemis.

Additionally, Titus visited Pompeii once after the eruption and again the following year.

During the second visit, …

…in spring of CE 80, a fire breaks out in Rome, burning large parts of the city for three days and three nights.

Although the extent of the damage is not as disastrous as during the Great Fire of 64—crucially sparing the many districts of insulae—Cassius Dio records a long list of important public buildings that were destroyed, including Agrippa's Pantheon, the Temple of Jupiter, the Diribitorium, parts of Pompey's Theater and the Saepta Julia among others.

Once again, Titus personally compensates for the damaged regions.

According to Suetonius, a plague similarly struck during the fire.

The nature of the disease, however, or the death toll are unknown.

Meanwhile war has resumed in Britannia, where Agricola pushes further into Caledonia and manages to establish several forts there.

As a result of his actions, Titus receives the title of Imperator for the fifteenth time.

Titus’s reign also sees the rebellion led by Terentius Maximus, one of several false Neros who continue to appear throughout the 70s.

In addition, sources state that Titus discovered that his brother Domitian was plotting against him but refused to have him killed or banished.

Practice of the imperial cult is revived by Titus, though apparently it met with some difficulty as Vespasian was not deified until six months after his death.

To further honor and glorify the Flavian dynasty, foundations are laid for what will later become the Temple of Vespasian and Titus, which will bes finished by Domitian.

Construction of the Flavian Amphitheater, presently better known as the Colosseum, had begun in 70 under Vespasian and is finally completed in 80 under Titus.

In addition to providing spectacular entertainments to the Roman populace, the building is also conceived as a gigantic triumphal monument to commemorate the military achievements of the Flavians during the Jewish wars.

Adjacent to the amphitheater, within the precinct of Nero's Golden House, Titus had also ordered the construction of a new public bathhouse, which is to bear his name.

Construction of this building is hastily finished to coincide with the completion of the Flavian Amphitheater.

The Colosseum features an immense oval superstructure standing 160 feet high (49 meters) and covers an area 118 feet long (615 meters) by 510 feet wide (156 meters).

The exterior walls are of travertine, the inner walls of tufa, and the vaulting of the ramped seating area of monolithic concrete.

Seventy-six of the eighty bays function as entryways, so that circulation is easy.

The arches of its four-story outer wall are framed by superimposed orders: Roman Doric on the ground floor, Ionic above that, and Corinthian on the third level.

The fourth story, embellished with Corinthian pilasters, carries wooden masts from which an awning (“velarium”) is suspended to shield spectators from the sun.

Marble and wooden seating for up to about fifty thousand spectators surrounds an arena 86 meters by 280 feet by 175 feet (54 meters).

The arena’s floor is built of heavy wooden planks; chambers below house animals for the games, passed from there to the arena by means of special corridors and counterbalanced elevators.

The flooring can be removed and the entire area flooded for mock naval battles.

The Romans build a fort at the site of present Caernarfon, a seaport on the Menai Strait in northwestern Wales in about 80.

The Roman fort, called Segontium, is established to aid in the subjugation of the Ordovices as part of the Roman conquest of Britain.