Lusitanians, or Lusitani

Atlantic Southwest Europe (621–478 BCE): Intensified Mediterranean Contacts and the Arrival of Celtic Cultural Influences

Between 621 and 478 BCE, Atlantic Southwest Europe—comprising northern and central Portugal, Galicia, Asturias, Cantabria, and parts of northern Spain—experienced intensified Mediterranean interactions, continued flourishing of the Castro culture, emergence of the distinct Lusitanian culture, and the significant arrival and integration of early Celtic-speaking peoples and cultural elements. This period marked a critical turning point, as Atlantic Southwest Europe transitioned toward greater cultural complexity and regional diversity.

Political and Societal Developments

Expansion and Complexity of the Castro Culture

• The Castro culture reached its zenith, characterized by numerous fortified settlements (castros) featuring elaborate stone fortifications, organized layouts, and social stratification, becoming regional centers of power and influence, especially in Galicia and northern Portugal.

• Political organization evolved significantly, demonstrating clear hierarchical structures and intensified territorial control.

Emergence of Lusitanian Culture

• Distinct Lusitanian communities emerged in central and western Iberia (modern Portugal and adjacent Spain), developing unique pottery styles, burial practices, linguistic identity, and warrior traditions, clearly distinguishing themselves from northern Castro neighbors.

Initial Celtic Migrations and Cultural Influence

• Beginning in the late 6th century BCE, early Celtic-speaking groups migrated into Atlantic Southwest Europe via routes across the Pyrenees and along the Atlantic coast, gradually introducing their language, cultural practices, artistic styles, and social structures.

• Celtic influences became increasingly evident in local art forms, metalwork styles, burial rituals, and linguistic patterns, creating hybridized cultures, notably among some Lusitanian communities and inland tribes.

Continued Proto-Basque Cultural Consolidation

• Proto-Basque communities maintained distinct cultural identities in areas surrounding the western Pyrenees and adjacent valleys, largely resistant to early Celtic cultural integration, preserving their unique linguistic and social traditions.

Economic and Technological Advancements

Expanded Mediterranean Trade Networks

• Mediterranean maritime trade intensified dramatically, primarily driven by Phoenician and early Carthaginian traders operating from Iberian colonies such as Gadir (modern Cádiz). Communities exchanged local resources—metals (tin, silver, copper), wool, salt, and agricultural goods—for Mediterranean luxury goods, iron tools, wine, and ceramics. Slavery expanded significantly due to intensified warfare, tribal conflicts, and growing economic specialization. Captive slaves became increasingly valuable as agricultural and mining laborers, and as commodities in trade networks with Mediterranean (Phoenician and Carthaginian) merchants.

• Celtic and Lusitanian groups increasingly engaged in these trade networks, benefiting economically and socially, strengthening tribal elites, and intensifying regional economic specialization.

Ironworking and Technological Innovation

• Iron metallurgy spread rapidly, influenced by Mediterranean trade contacts and Celtic technological practices, significantly improving agricultural productivity, warfare capabilities, and artisanal production.

• Bronze working persisted in ceremonial and decorative contexts, complementing the widespread adoption of iron technology.

Cultural and Religious Developments

Celtic Cultural Integration and Hybridization

• Celtic artistic styles, including distinctive motifs, metalworking techniques, and pottery forms, became increasingly evident, blending with indigenous Lusitanian and Castro traditions.

• Cultural interactions created hybrid identities, shaping the foundations for future Celtiberian cultures, particularly within Lusitanian territories.

Ritual Practices and Religious Complexity

• Religious and ceremonial traditions evolved significantly, integrating Celtic ritual practices—such as sacred spring worship, warrior cults, and druidic traditions—with local ancestor veneration and nature-based rituals.

• Sacred spaces, ritual sites, and hilltop sanctuaries became increasingly important, reflecting a complex religious synthesis among indigenous and incoming Celtic beliefs.

Notable Settlements and Tribal Groups

• Castro Settlements: Prominent castros across Galicia and northern Portugal thrived as influential economic and social centers.

• Lusitanian Settlements: Developed distinct fortified villages in central and western Iberia, reflecting strong local identity and economic resilience.

• Early Celtic Communities: Established initial settlements, primarily in the interior and northeastern regions, gradually integrating culturally and socially into local populations.

• Proto-Basque Communities: Continued to reinforce their unique identity, resisting early Celtic assimilation.

Long-Term Significance and Legacy

Between 621 and 478 BCE, Atlantic Southwest Europe:

• Experienced substantial social and economic transformations driven by intensified Mediterranean interactions, technological innovations, and demographic changes.

• Witnessed the significant arrival and initial integration of Celtic-speaking groups, introducing new linguistic, social, and cultural elements into the regional landscape.

• Saw the definitive emergence of Lusitanian cultural identity alongside the enduring Castro and proto-Basque cultures, laying foundations for a diverse and complex cultural region.

This pivotal era positioned Atlantic Southwest Europe on the threshold of deeper Celtic integration, setting the stage for subsequent Celtiberian cultural development and increasing interactions with expanding Mediterranean civilizations.

Atlantic Southwest Europe (477–334 BCE): Deepening Celtic Integration and Growing Cultural Complexity

Between 477 and 334 BCE, Atlantic Southwest Europe—encompassing northern and central Portugal, Galicia, Asturias, Cantabria, and parts of northern Spain—underwent significant transformations marked by intensified Celtic cultural integration, expanded Mediterranean trade, and increasing societal complexity. This era witnessed growing interactions among the established Castro culture, emerging Lusitanian societies, resilient proto-Basque communities, and increasingly influential Celtic tribes, laying critical foundations for later Celtiberian and Iberian developments.

Political and Societal Developments

Expansion of Celtic Cultural Influence

• Celtic-speaking populations expanded their presence significantly, establishing permanent communities, especially in the interior and northern regions, introducing structured social hierarchies, warrior aristocracies, and new forms of political organization.

• Interactions between indigenous Lusitanian and Castro groups with incoming Celts resulted in hybrid cultural formations, characterized by shared political alliances, intermarriage, and blended cultural traditions.

Castro Culture Resilience and Regional Influence

• The Castro culture maintained its prominence, especially in Galicia and northern Portugal, where fortified settlements (castros) remained key economic, administrative, and defensive centers, now increasingly influenced by Celtic art, weaponry, and societal structures.

• Castro communities engaged actively in trade and diplomatic alliances with Celtic tribes, shaping regional dynamics.

Development of Lusitanian Society

• The Lusitanians strengthened their distinct cultural identity in central and western Iberia, continuing to develop fortified hilltop settlements, unique metallurgical practices, and warrior traditions, increasingly interacting culturally and economically with Celtic newcomers.

Proto-Basque Cultural Continuity

• Proto-Basque communities around the western Pyrenees and northern Iberian valleys maintained cultural resilience and territorial autonomy, largely resisting Celtic linguistic and social assimilation, preserving a distinct identity throughout this period.

Economic and Technological Advancements

Intensified Mediterranean Trade Networks

• Phoenician and Carthaginian trade networks expanded significantly, fostering economic prosperity and cultural exchanges. Coastal and inland tribes traded local commodities—metals, salt, wool, and agricultural products—for Mediterranean luxury goods, ceramics, iron weaponry, jewelry, and wine. Tribal economies increasingly relied upon slave labor, particularly among Lusitanian, Castro, and emerging Celtic communities, who captured slaves in warfare and engaged actively in slave trade exchanges with Mediterranean traders, acquiring luxury items and metal goods.

• Celtic tribes, Lusitanians, and Castro communities integrated into these trade networks, greatly benefiting economically and socially, reinforcing the power of tribal elites.

Advances in Ironworking and Metallurgical Expertise

• Ironworking techniques spread widely and improved significantly under Mediterranean and Celtic influence, revolutionizing agriculture, warfare, and daily life.

• High-quality iron weapons and agricultural implements became commonplace, complemented by continued advanced bronze-working in artistic, ceremonial, and decorative contexts.

Cultural and Religious Developments

Fusion of Celtic and Indigenous Traditions

• Celtic artistic motifs, pottery styles, and symbolic elements increasingly blended with indigenous Lusitanian and Castro traditions, creating richly hybridized cultures.

• Language exchange intensified, with many indigenous groups gradually adopting elements of Celtic languages, leading to the emergence of distinctive Celtiberian linguistic and cultural identities.

Evolving Ritual and Religious Practices

• Celtic religious influences—such as nature cults, sacred springs, druidic rituals, and warrior rites—were adopted and adapted alongside local ancestor veneration and communal practices.

• Sanctuaries, megalithic monuments, and ritual centers proliferated and diversified, reflecting increasingly complex religious beliefs and ceremonies.

Notable Settlements and Tribal Groups

• Castro Settlements: Prominent fortified settlements across Galicia and northern Portugal remained vibrant centers of commerce, metallurgy, and cultural exchange.

• Lusitanian Communities: Continued expanding fortified villages, further solidifying their cultural identity and economic strength.

• Established Celtic Tribes: Settled primarily in inland regions, influencing local societies culturally, economically, and politically, laying groundwork for future Celtiberian tribal entities.

• Proto-Basque Communities: Maintained distinct identity and autonomy in the western Pyrenees region, continuing a cultural tradition separate from widespread Celtic integration.

Long-Term Significance and Legacy

Between 477 and 334 BCE, Atlantic Southwest Europe:

• Experienced intensified Celtic integration, significantly reshaping regional cultural, social, and linguistic landscapes.

• Further consolidated trade and economic connections with Mediterranean civilizations, enhancing regional prosperity and societal complexity.

• Strengthened distinctive local cultural identities, particularly Lusitanian and Castro communities, while maintaining proto-Basque cultural autonomy, laying essential groundwork for the diverse Celtiberian cultures of subsequent centuries.

This transformative period positioned Atlantic Southwest Europe firmly within the broader European and Mediterranean historical narrative, significantly influencing the region’s future cultural, economic, and political trajectory.

Atlantic Southwest Europe (333–190 BCE): Celtic Consolidation, Lusitanian Expansion, and Emergence of Major Iberian Tribes

Between 333 and 190 BCE, Atlantic Southwest Europe—covering northern and central Portugal, Galicia, Asturias, Cantabria, and parts of northern Spain—experienced intensified Celtic integration, the flourishing of Lusitanian culture, and increased Mediterranean interactions. Significantly, this era witnessed the clear historical emergence of distinctive Iberian and Celtic tribal groups—including the Gallaeci, Astures, Cantabri, Autrigones, Caristii/Carietes, Vardulli, Berones, Turmodigi, 
Vaccaei, Vettones, Celtici, and Turduli Oppidani—each defining regional identities that would profoundly shape subsequent historical developments.

Political and Societal Developments

Consolidation of Major Tribal Groups

• Gallaeci tribes prominently occupied northwestern Iberia (modern Galicia and northern Portugal), closely associated with the Castro culture. They expanded fortified settlements and maintained substantial regional power through trade, agriculture, and metalworking.

• Astures and Cantabri emerged as dominant tribal confederations in northern Iberia (modern Asturias and Cantabria), known for fiercely defending their autonomy, developing extensive hillfort settlements, and distinctive warrior societies.

• Tribes such as the Autrigones, Caristii, Carietes, Vardulli, and Berones occupied territories across the northern Iberian plateau and eastern Cantabrian areas, establishing distinct cultural identities marked by fortified settlements, metallurgy, and agricultural practices.

• Inland Iberian tribal groups, notably the Turmodigi, Vaccaei, and Vettones, developed significant agricultural economies, sophisticated settlement structures, and trade networks across the Iberian interior, interacting intensively with Celtic, Lusitanian, and Mediterranean neighbors.

• The southern coastal and inland groups, particularly the Celtici and the Turduli Oppidani, established influential fortified towns (oppida), marking an early step toward proto-urban development and intensive Mediterranean engagement.

Lusitanian Expansion and Cultural Solidification

• The Lusitanians expanded significantly in central and western Iberia, further consolidating their distinct cultural identity, warrior traditions, and economic strength through fortified settlements, intricate metalwork, and strategic alliances with neighboring tribes.

Continued Stability of Proto-Basque Communities

• Proto-Basque groups maintained cultural and territorial resilience around the Pyrenees and northern valleys, resisting assimilation into neighboring Celtic-speaking communities, and continuing distinct linguistic and cultural practices.

Economic and Technological Developments

Intensified Mediterranean Economic Integration

• Robust trade networks connected Atlantic Southwest Europe with Mediterranean societies, particularly Carthaginian and emerging Roman trade routes. Iberian tribes exchanged metals (silver, copper, tin), salt, wool, timber, and agricultural products for Mediterranean luxury goods, ceramics, iron implements, wine, and olive oil. Slave labor became deeply embedded within regional economies, particularly in mining operations (silver, copper, tin), agricultural estates, and household service. Slaves, captured during tribal conflicts or raids, were regularly exchanged for Mediterranean imports, reinforcing economic hierarchies.

• Tribal elites among groups like the Gallaeci, Vettones, Celtici, and Lusitanians greatly benefited from these exchanges, consolidating their power and reinforcing social hierarchies.

Advancements in Iron Metallurgy

• Iron technology was firmly established throughout the region, widely adopted for agriculture, warfare, and artisanal production, greatly enhancing productivity and military effectiveness.

• Skilled artisans among the Gallaeci, Lusitanians, Celtici, and Vaccaei notably excelled in creating finely crafted iron and bronze weapons, tools, and decorative ornaments, blending indigenous and Mediterranean influences.

Cultural and Religious Developments

Hybridization of Cultural Traditions

• The increasing Celtic presence influenced local artistic and material cultures across tribes, visible through the spread of distinctive Celtic motifs in metalwork, pottery, and decorative arts, creating hybridized artistic styles.

• Tribal identities and linguistic patterns became increasingly complex, with clear Celtic linguistic influences emerging alongside indigenous Lusitanian and Iberian languages.

Complexity of Religious and Ritual Practices

• Ritual and religious traditions intensified, integrating Celtic and indigenous practices involving ancestor worship, warrior cults, nature reverence, and communal rites.

• Tribes maintained prominent sacred sites, hilltop sanctuaries, and ceremonial centers, reinforcing communal bonds, spiritual beliefs, and tribal identities.

Notable Settlements and Tribal Groups

• Gallaeci and Castro Settlements: Extensive hillfort settlements across Galicia and northern Portugal served as regional centers, economically and culturally influential.

• Astures and Cantabri: Numerous hillfort communities in Asturias and Cantabria, reflecting robust warrior traditions, territorial autonomy, and cultural distinctiveness.

• Vettones, Vaccaei, and Turmodigi: Flourishing fortified towns and agriculturally prosperous settlements in the Iberian interior, influential in regional trade.

• Celtici and Turduli Oppidani: Developed notable fortified towns along southern coastal and inland regions, becoming proto-urban trade hubs closely connected with Mediterranean commerce.

• Proto-Basque Communities: Maintained distinct settlements and cultural practices around the western Pyrenees, demonstrating consistent cultural resilience.

Long-Term Significance and Legacy

Between 333 and 190 BCE, Atlantic Southwest Europe:

• Witnessed the clear emergence and consolidation of major Iberian and Celtic tribal groups, significantly reshaping political landscapes, cultural identities, and economic interactions.

• Deepened integration into Mediterranean economic networks, setting the stage for subsequent Roman expansion and economic incorporation.

• Established foundational cultural diversity and complexity, influencing later historical trajectories and regional interactions with external powers.

This era decisively shaped the diverse cultural and political landscape of Atlantic Southwest Europe, paving the way for further interactions, particularly with Rome, and firmly embedding regional identities into the broader European historical narrative.

Atlantic Southwest Europe (189–46 BCE): From Tribal Autonomy to Roman Integration

Between 189 and 46 BCE, Atlantic Southwest Europe—encompassing northern and central Portugal, Galicia, Asturias, Cantabria, and northern Spain south of the Franco-Spanish border (43.05548° N, 1.22924° W)—underwent a profound transformation. Initially characterized by vigorous tribal autonomy, the region increasingly encountered direct Roman territorial ambitions following Rome’s victory in the Second Punic War. Over these pivotal decades, the Lusitanians, under charismatic leaders such as Viriathus, spearheaded fierce resistance, while northern tribes—including the Gallaeci, Astures, and Cantabri—persistently defended their independence.

Political and Military Evolution

• Early Resistance and Diplomacy (189–142 BCE):
  Roman expansion into Hispania triggered intense tribal resistance, particularly among the Lusitanians, who effectively united regional tribes. The emergence of the Vascones as a diplomatically cautious group further defined regional dynamics.

• Lusitanian Resistance and Viriathus (141–130 BCE):
  Resistance reached its apex under Viriathus, whose guerrilla tactics significantly hindered Roman advancement, creating a lasting legacy of Iberian defiance.

• Roman Consolidation and Northern Autonomy (129–70 BCE):
  Following Viriathus’s assassination, southern tribes gradually adapted diplomatically, accepting Roman provincial integration. Northern tribes, however, persisted in resistance, effectively preserving their autonomy through strategic fortifications and resilient alliances.

• Final Roman Campaigns and Integration (69–46 BCE):
  Rome escalated military campaigns to fully integrate the region. While Lusitania largely accepted provincial administration, northern tribes remained fiercely independent, setting the stage for future decisive conflicts like the Cantabrian Wars.

Economic Integration and Slavery

• Throughout the period, tribes significantly deepened their integration into Roman-dominated Mediterranean trade networks, exchanging metals (silver, copper, tin), agricultural goods, salt, timber, and notably, slaves, for Mediterranean luxury goods, ceramics, wine, and olive oil.

• Slavery remained foundational, profoundly influencing economic and social structures, with slave labor integral to mining operations, agriculture, domestic roles, and trade.

Technological and Cultural Developments

• Advances in iron metallurgy greatly enhanced agriculture, warfare, and artisanal production, with tribal artisans excelling in intricate weaponry, decorative ornaments, and ceremonial artifacts.

• Cultural identities remained robust and resilient, synthesizing indigenous Iberian, Celtic, and Roman influences into vibrant artistic expressions and ritual practices, maintaining strong tribal identities and social cohesion.

Tribal Identities and Regional Stability

• Lusitanians and allied tribes (such as Vettones and Vaccaei) gradually accommodated Roman rule through strategic diplomacy, maintaining local autonomy and economic privileges.

• Northern tribes (Gallaeci, Astures, Cantabri) and the diplomatically cautious Vascones preserved considerable independence, sustaining resistance and regional autonomy.

Long-Term Historical Legacy

From 189 to 46 BCE, Atlantic Southwest Europe experienced:

• A profound shift from independent tribal autonomy to significant Roman provincial integration, shaping the region’s political, economic, and cultural evolution for centuries.

• Sustained and resilient resistance from northern tribes, significantly impacting Roman military strategies and regional history.

• Deep economic integration into Roman Mediterranean networks, establishing lasting economic structures reliant on slavery, trade, and cultural interaction.

This transformative era decisively positioned Atlantic Southwest Europe on a path toward full incorporation into the Roman Empire, leaving an enduring historical legacy characterized by resilient cultural identities, strategic adaptation, and persistent resistance.

After defeating Carthage, the Romans transform its former territories into a new province and set out to conquer and occupy the entire Iberian Peninsula.

This invasion is met with strong resistance from the indigenous peoples, particularly the Lusitanians, who inhabit the western part of the peninsula. Their fiercest opposition is led by the warrior chieftain Viriato, the most powerful of their leaders.

For several decades, Viriato successfully resists Roman expansion, using guerrilla warfare to hold back the invaders. However, his defiance comes to an end when he is assassinated in his sleep by three of his own men, who had been bribed by the Romans.

With Viriato’s death, Lusitanian resistance collapses, allowing Rome to swiftly complete its conquest of the peninsula.

Today, Viriato is regarded as Portugal’s first great national hero, symbolizing the spirit of resistance and independence.

Atlantic Southwest Europe (189–178 BCE): Roman Territorial Expansion, Lusitanian Resistance, and the Emergence of the Vascones

Between 189 and 178 BCE, Atlantic Southwest Europe—encompassing northern and central Portugal, Galicia, Asturias, Cantabria, and parts of northern Spain south of the Franco-Spanish border at 43.05548° N, 1.22924° W—entered a pivotal era characterized by direct Roman territorial claims in Iberia, robust Lusitanian resistance, and the clear historical emergence of the Vascones. This period set the stage for intensified Roman involvement, increasingly complex tribal dynamics, and solidified regional identities.

Political and Military Developments

Roman Territorial Claims in Hispania

• Following Rome’s victory in the Second Punic War (218–201 BCE), Roman influence significantly expanded into southern and eastern Iberia, with the establishment of administrative provinces—Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior.

• Although direct Roman control did not yet extend deeply into Atlantic Southwest Europe, diplomatic and military pressures increased, foreshadowing future Roman interactions and conflicts.

Lusitanian Resistance and Consolidation

• The Lusitanians actively strengthened resistance against Roman encroachment, consolidating fortified hilltop settlements in western and central Iberia and emphasizing distinctive cultural traditions and military capabilities.

• Lusitanian society became more organized, cohesive, and strategically prepared, laying foundations for future confrontations with Rome.

Emergence of the Vascones

• This era marked the definitive historical emergence of the Vascones, occupying territories around the western Pyrenees and the adjacent region south of the Franco-Spanish border. They maintained distinct pastoral-agricultural lifestyles, robust social structures, and resilient tribal autonomy, becoming clearly identifiable in historical records.

• The Vascones preserved their cultural and linguistic distinctiveness, clearly differentiating themselves from neighboring Celtic and Iberian groups.

Continued Tribal Strength and Identity

• Tribes such as the Gallaeci, Astures, Cantabri, and interior groups like the Vettones and Vaccaei reinforced their territories, fortifications, and alliances, responding strategically to the emerging Roman presence.

Economic and Technological Developments

Mediterranean-Roman Trade Expansion

• Atlantic Southwest European communities expanded economic interactions within Roman-controlled Mediterranean networks, exchanging metals (silver, copper, tin), wool, salt, agricultural goods, and timber for imported luxury items, wine, olive oil, ceramics, and iron products. Slavery continued to be an essential component of tribal economies, notably among the Lusitanians, Gallaeci, Celtici, and other groups. Captive slaves were actively traded with Roman, Phoenician, and Carthaginian merchants, reflecting deepening Mediterranean economic integration and regional social stratification.

• Lusitanian, Vascones, and Gallaeci tribal elites especially benefited economically, reinforcing social hierarchies and regional prosperity.

Advances in Ironworking and Craftsmanship

• Iron metallurgy advanced significantly, improving agricultural productivity, warfare technology, and artisanal production, reshaping regional economies and social structures.

• Local artisans, notably among Lusitanians and Gallaeci, produced sophisticated iron and bronze weapons, tools, and ornamental objects, blending indigenous styles with Mediterranean influences.

Cultural and Religious Developments

Artistic and Cultural Fusion

• Celtic artistic motifs continued to integrate with indigenous Lusitanian, Gallaeci, and Vascones traditions, creating a rich, hybridized material culture characterized by sophisticated metalwork, pottery, and decorative jewelry.

• Tribal identities became increasingly pronounced, emphasizing local traditions alongside influences from broader Mediterranean trade and cultural interactions.

Ritual and Religious Complexity

• Ritual traditions expanded, combining indigenous, Celtic, and early Roman-influenced religious practices, involving ancestor veneration, warrior rites, and nature-based rituals.

• Prominent ritual centers, sacred landscapes, and ceremonial sites proliferated, reinforcing communal identities and tribal cohesion, especially among the Lusitanians, Gallaeci, and Vascones.

Notable Settlements and Tribal Groups

• Lusitanians: Reinforced fortified settlements and distinct identity, resisting external pressures and preparing strategically for future Roman conflicts.

• Vascones: Emerged historically distinct in areas around the Pyrenees south of the Franco-Spanish border, maintaining unique cultural traditions, pastoral-agricultural lifestyles, and resilient societal structures.

• Gallaeci, Astures, and Cantabri: Expanded their strongholds, preserving regional autonomy and preparing defensive capabilities against future Roman advancement.

Long-Term Significance and Legacy

Between 189 and 178 BCE, Atlantic Southwest Europe:

• Experienced the early stages of Roman territorial influence in Iberia, setting the stage for future military, political, and economic interactions.

• Saw intensified regional resistance, particularly among Lusitanians and Vascones, preparing these groups for significant roles in subsequent historical conflicts and developments.

• Marked the clear historical appearance of the Vascones, solidifying the enduring cultural identity of what would become the Basque people.

This crucial era shaped the future trajectory of Atlantic Southwest Europe, laying foundational cultural, political, and economic dynamics for subsequent historical developments, particularly the looming Roman expansions into the region.

Roman armies had invaded Hispania in 218 BCE and used it as a training ground for officers and as a proving ground for tactics during campaigns against the Carthaginians, the Iberians, the Lusitanians, the Celts and the Gallaecians.

From 197 BCE onward, the part of the Iberian Peninsula that had fallen under Roman control has been divided into two provinces: Hispania Citerior to the north (the future Hispania Tarraconensis, with Tarraco as its capital) and …

…Hispania Ulterior to the south, with its capital at Córdoba.

The two provinces are governed by two biannual proconsuls.

The next major Roman step is the conquest of Lusitania with two crushing victories, one of which, in 189 BCE, is won by proconsul Lucius Aemilius Paulus.

The central region of the Iberian peninsula, called Celtiberia, is officially conquered in 181 BCE by Quintus Fabius Flaccus, who bests the local Celtiberian people and claims control of several territories.