Elias I

Robert Curthose's First Revolt Against William the Conqueror (1077–1079)

By 1077 or early 1078, Robert Curthose, the eldest son of William the Conqueror, launched his first major insurrection against his father, after feeling powerless and dissatisfied with his share of authority. His rebellion, though fueled by long-standing frustrations, was sparked by a seemingly trivial prank played by his younger brothers, William Rufus and Henry, which escalated into a full-scale conflict involving foreign alliances and military engagements.

Background: Robert’s Discontent and Early Titles

• Robert was named Count of Maine in 1063 due to his betrothal to Margaret of Maine, but with her early death, his control over the county never materialized.
• The county was likely administered by his father, William, until it revolted in 1069 and reverted to Hugh V of Maine.
• By the late 1070s, Robert resented his lack of real power, particularly in Normandy and Maine, and tensions between him and his father grew steadily.

The Chamber-Pot Incident and the Start of Robert’s Revolt (1077–1078)

• According to Orderic Vitalis, Robert had demanded control of Normandy and Maine, but his request was denied by William.
• A prank played by his younger brothers, William Rufus and Henry, where they dumped a chamber-pot over Robert’s head, humiliated him in front of his peers.
• Enraged, Robert began fighting with his brothers, forcing King William to intervene.
• When William failed to punish his younger sons, Robert felt his dignity had been insulted and decided to take matters into his own hands.

Robert’s Attempted Coup and Flight to Flanders

• The next day, Robert and his young noble followers attempted to seize Rouen Castle, hoping to establish a base of power within Normandy.
• His companions included prominent young nobles, such as:
  • Robert of Bellême
  • William de Breteuil
  • Roger, son of Richard fitzGilbert
• The siege failed, and when King William ordered their arrest, Robert and his followers fled Normandy.
• They sought refuge at the court of Robert I of Flanders, Robert’s maternal uncle, and later found sanctuary with Hugh of Châteauneuf-en-Thymerais at the castle of Rémalard.

William I’s Expedition to Maine and the Papal Mediation (1081–1082)

By the end of 1081, William I (the Conqueror) returned to the continent to deal with disturbances in Maine, a region that had long been a contested territory between Normandy and Anjou. Although William launched an expedition into Maine, the conflict did not end in a decisive Norman victory but was instead settled through papal mediation.

Background: Unrest in Maine

• Maine had been under Norman control since William’s conquest of the county in 1063–1064, but Norman rule had never been secure, as local nobles resented foreign dominance.
• By 1081, unrest had resurfaced, possibly fueled by anti-Norman factions supported by Anjou or Capetian France.
• William, still balancing his rule over both England and Normandy, returned to the continent to stabilize Maine.

William’s Expedition and the Role of the Papacy

• William led a military campaign into Maine, but rather than crushing the rebellion outright, the situation was settled diplomatically.
• A papal legate intervened, arranging a negotiated settlement between the Normans and the local factions.
• This mediation suggests that William preferred a political solution rather than a prolonged military occupation, especially as his resources were stretched between England and Normandy.

Consequences of the Settlement

• The Normans maintained a presence in Maine, but the region remained unstable, continuing to be a point of conflict in later years.
• The involvement of a papal legate demonstrates the growing role of the Church in European diplomacy, as the papacy increasingly acted as a mediator in secular disputes.
• William’s decision to negotiate rather than impose military rule reflected his pragmatic approach to governance, recognizing that a prolonged campaign in Maine could weaken his position elsewhere.

Significance

• William’s return to the continent in 1081 highlighted the challenges of ruling both England and Normandy, as unrest in Maine demanded his presence.
• The settlement mediated by the papacy showcased the diplomatic complexity of medieval politics, where military conquest did not always guarantee long-term stability.
• This period of relative peace in Maine allowed William to redirect his attention to other political and military concerns, particularly his relations with the French crown and internal issues in Normandy and England.

Though William’s expedition into Maine did not end in a decisive military conquest, the negotiated settlement in 1081–1082 ensured a temporary Norman hold on the county, securing William’s continental interests without overextending his resources.

William the Conqueror’s Final Campaign and Decline (1086–1087)

By late 1086, William the Conqueror had left England and returned to Normandy, where he continued his continental policies, including alliances against King Philip I of France. One of his final diplomatic moves was marrying his daughter, Constance, to Alan Fergant, Count of Brittany, strengthening ties between Normandy and Brittany. Meanwhile, his rebellious son, Robert Curthose, had been wandering Europe, allying with King Philipand stirring unrest, leading to William’s final military campaign in the French Vexin in 1087.

Robert Curthose’s Wanderings and Alliance with Philip I

• After Matilda’s death in 1083, Robert, who had frequently quarreled with his father, left court and traveled throughout France, Germany, and Flanders.
• He sought the hand of Matilda of Tuscany, one of the greatest heiresses of the age, but his suit was unsuccessful.
• During his time as a wandering knight, Robert fathered several illegitimate children and gained experience in military and political affairs.
• By 1087, Robert had returned north and, still allied with Philip I, began stirring up trouble for William in Norman borderlands.

William’s Response: The Campaign Against the French Vexin (July 1087)

• With Robert acting as a destabilizing force and King Philip I continuing to challenge Norman authority, William launched an expedition into the Vexin in July 1087.
• William’s forces laid waste to the region, culminating in the seizure of Mantes, a key strategic town.
• However, during the capture of Mantes, William either fell ill or suffered an injury, reportedly struck in the abdomen by the pommel of his saddle.

Consequences and the Beginning of William’s Final Days

• William’s illness or injury at Mantes marked the beginning of his final decline.
• The wounds and exhaustion from the campaign left William severely weakened, forcing him to withdraw from active command.
• His condition rapidly deteriorated, leading to his death in September 1087.

Legacy of William’s Final Actions

• The marriage of Constance to Alan Fergant reinforced Normandy’s alliance with Brittany, creating a counterbalance against France.
• Robert’s continued defiance and alliance with Philip I foreshadowed the ongoing Capetian-Norman struggles, which would last for generations.
• William’s final campaign in the French Vexin demonstrated his unyielding military ambition, even in his last years, but ultimately led to his death and the division of his realm.

The campaign against the French Vexin in 1087 was William’s last military action, and his fall at Mantes set the stage for his death and the struggles between his sons over his vast empire.

The Death and Succession of William the Conqueror (September 1087)

After falling ill or suffering an injury at Mantes, William the Conqueror was taken to the Priory of St. Gervase in Rouen, where he spent his final days. As he lay dying, he faced the complex task of dividing his vast realm, balancing Norman and English traditions of inheritance. His succession arrangements reflected the feudal instability of the time, with his sons receiving different portions of his empire, leading to immediate discord after his death on September 9, 1087.

Norman vs. English Succession Traditions

• In parts of France, primogeniture (where the eldest son inherits everything) was becoming more common.
• In Normandy and England, however, the tradition was often to divide lands among sons, distinguishing between ancestral and acquired lands.
• William followed this customary division, treating Normandy as patrimonial land and England as a newly conquered kingdom.

William’s Succession Arrangements

• Robert Curthose (the eldest son)

  • Despite being in rebellion against his father, he inherited Normandy, as it was William’s ancestral duchy.
  • Robert was known to be brave but reckless, and many doubted his ability to govern effectively.

• William Rufus (the second surviving son)

  • Given England, as William wanted a strong and loyal ruler there.
  • Already in his father’s favor, he was sent back to England on September 7 or 8, 1087, carrying a letter to Archbishop Lanfranc instructing him to support the new king.
  • William Rufus was grasping and aggressive, leading to future conflicts with his brothers.

• Henry (the youngest son)

  • Given a large sum of money (5,000 pounds) but no lands, with the expectation that he would receive his mother’s estates in Buckinghamshire and Gloucestershire.
  • Henry’s financial advantage allowed him to position himself as a potential ruler, leading to his eventual seizure of England in 1100.

Other Bequests and Acts Before Death

• William distributed wealth to the Church and gave money to the poor.
• He ordered the release of all his prisoners, including his half-brother Odo of Bayeux, who had been imprisoned since 1082.
• His last acts reflected piety and attempts at reconciliation, though his divided succession ensured further strife.

The Aftermath: Chaos and the Burial of William

• Upon his death on September 9, 1087, those at his bedside abandoned his body and hurried away to secure their own interests.
• Normandy and England immediately fell into instability, as Robert and William Rufus prepared to secure their respective inheritances.
• William’s body was eventually transported to Caen, where he had wished to be buried at Abbaye-aux-Hommes, one of his great monastic foundations.

Legacy and Division of Power

• William’s death and division of his empire led to immediate struggles, as Robert and William Rufus fought for control over both England and Normandy.
• Henry, though not initially given land, would eventually seize power in England in 1100 and claim Normandy in 1106, uniting the realms once more.
• The disorder following William’s death reflected the fragility of medieval feudal inheritance systems, where divided rule often led to conflict and instability.

The death of William the Conqueror in 1087 marked the end of an era, but his dynastic decisions ensured that Norman England and Normandy would remain in turmoil for years to come.

The Funeral of William the Conqueror and the Immediate Succession Crisis (1087)

The funeral of William the Conqueror in Caen was marked by embarrassment, legal disputes, and an unsettling final moment, foreshadowing the chaos that followed his death. Even as his body was laid to rest, his three surviving sons—Robert Curthose, William Rufus, and Henry—were already embroiled in conflict over the division of his empire.

William’s Funeral at Abbaye-aux-Hommes

• William was buried at the Church of Saint-Étienne (Abbaye-aux-Hommes) in Caen, fulfilling his wish to be interred in his great monastic foundation.
• The bishops and abbots of Normandy, as well as his youngest son Henry, attended the funeral.

The Land Dispute

• A citizen of Caen interrupted the ceremony, claiming that the land on which the church stood had been stolen from his family.
• Upon investigation, the claim was found to be true, and the man was compensated before the burial could continue.

The Corpse Incident

• When the body was lowered into the tomb, it was too large for the space.
• The attendants forcibly pushed the bloated corpse into the tomb, causing it to burst open, releasing a horrendous stench throughout the church.
• This grisly spectacle disturbed the mourners, adding an ominous tone to the funeral.

Immediate Consequences: War Between Robert and William Rufus

Robert’s Claim to Both England and Normandy

• Robert Curthose, the eldest son, returned to Normandy, expecting to inherit both the duchy and the kingdom, as his father had once promised.
• However, William Rufus had already crossed the Channel and seized the throne of England, being crowned William II soon after.
• Robert was furious, as he believed he had been cheated out of his inheritance.

Rebellion Against William Rufus (1088)

• Many of England’s leading nobles rebelled against William Rufus, supporting Robert’s claim to the throne.
• Robert began planning an invasion of England, seeking to dethrone William Rufus and claim his "rightful inheritance."

Henry’s Position in the Conflict

• Henry, the youngest brother, remained in Normandy, taking a role within Robert’s court.
• His motivations were unclear—he may have wanted to avoid siding openly with William Rufus, or he may have feared that Robert would confiscate his money if he left for England.
• Meanwhile, William Rufus confiscated Henry’s English estates, leaving Henry temporarily landless.

Significance and Long-Term Consequences

• The division of Normandy and England between Robert and William Rufus led to years of war and instability.
• Henry’s position as a landless noble forced him to carefully navigate the conflict, eventually exploiting divisions between his brothers to his advantage.
• The events following William’s funeral set the stage for nearly two decades of warfare, culminating in Henry seizing both England and Normandy by 1106.

The chaotic funeral of William the Conqueror was a fitting metaphor for the disorder that followed his death, as his sons plunged into civil war, each seeking dominance over the vast empire he had built.

Robert Curthose and Henry’s Agreement Over Western Normandy (1088)

By 1088, Robert Curthose's plans to invade England and reclaim the throne from William Rufus were falling apart, as his noble supporters wavered and resources ran thin. In a desperate bid for funds, Robert turned to his younger brother Henry, requesting a loan from his inheritance—a request that Henry refused. Instead, the two brothers struck an alternative deal, one that would grant Henry considerable power in western Normandy.

Robert and Henry’s Agreement: The Creation of a New Countship (1088)

• Rather than simply lending money, Henry negotiated for political gain.
• In exchange for three thousand pounds, Robert delegated ducal authority over western Normandy to Henry, granting him a newly created countship.
• This new domain centered around the Cotentin Peninsula, extending across the Avranchin and including control over both bishoprics.

The Strategic Importance of Henry’s New Lands

• Henry’s countship in western Normandy gave him authority over:
  • Two powerful Norman bishops—one in Avranches, the other in Coutances.
  • Two influential barons: Hugh d’Avranches (Earl of Chester) and Richard de Redvers, securing Henry's local military backing.
  • The Abbey of Mont Saint-Michel, a prestigious religious institution with extensive landholdings across Normandy.

This strategic position placed Henry in direct control of key coastal and frontier regions, allowing him to build his own power base within Normandy.

The Failure of Robert’s Invasion of England (1088)

• Despite his deal with Henry, Robert’s invasion force never sailed from Normandy, leaving William Rufus secure in England.
• The rebellion in England failed, with many of Robert’s noble supporters switching sides or abandoning the cause.
• With England lost to him, Robert’s focus remained on securing Normandy, while Henry expanded his influence within the duchy.

Consequences and Significance

• Henry’s growing authority in western Normandy made him a powerful figure, rivaling both Robert and William Rufus.
• This agreement set the stage for later conflicts, as Henry would eventually challenge both of his brothers for control of England and Normandy.
• Robert’s continued financial struggles weakened his rule over Normandy, making him increasingly dependent on allies like Henry.

The 1088 agreement between Robert and Henry was a pivotal moment in the Norman succession struggle, as it allowed Henry to carve out his own territory in Normandy, positioning him for greater ambitions in both Normandy and England in the years to come.

Elias I Becomes Count of Maine and Resumes War with Normandy (1092)

In 1092, Elias I of Maine succeeded his cousin Hugh V, after the latter sold the county to him for ten thousand shillings. With the backing of Fulk IV of Anjou, Elias continued the long-standing war with Robert Curthose, Duke of Normandy, resisting Norman efforts to reassert control over Maine.

The Sale of Maine to Elias I (1092)

• Hugh V of Maine, unable to hold onto his county, chose to sell Maine rather than continue his struggle against Normandy.
• Elias I of Maine, a relative of Hugh, purchased the county for ten thousand shillings, securing legitimate rule over Maine.
• Normandy had previously controlled Maine (under William the Conqueror), but the county had always been unstable and contested.

Support from Anjou and War with Normandy

• Elias immediately sought the support of Fulk IV of Anjou, who had long opposed Norman expansion.
• With Angevin backing, Elias resumed hostilities against Duke Robert Curthose, who was struggling to maintain control over Normandy itself.
• This marked another phase in the ongoing conflict between Anjou, Maine, and Normandy, a rivalry that had persisted for decades.

Consequences and Strategic Importance

• The sale of Maine to Elias I ended Hugh V’s ineffective rule and gave the county a more capable leader.
• Elias’ war against Normandy weakened Robert Curthose, whose control over his duchy was already fragile.
• The continued Angevin support for Maine set the stage for further conflicts between Anjou and Normandy, shaping the political landscape of northwestern France for decades.

By 1092, Elias I had secured legitimate rule over Maine and, with Angevin support, continued to resist Norman domination, keeping Robert Curthose embroiled in yet another struggle for control of his lands.

he Anglo-Norman Succession Crisis and William Rufus’ Wars in Normandy and Maine (1088–1099)

The division of William the Conqueror’s lands between his sons William Rufus (England) and Robert Curthose (Normandy) created a dilemma for the Anglo-Norman nobility, many of whom held land on both sides of the English Channel. With the two brothers as natural rivals, these nobles feared being forced to choose between them, potentially losing favor, lands, or influence in one realm or the other.

The solution, as many saw it, was to reunite England and Normandy under a single ruler, a goal that would drive rebellions, wars, and shifting alliances throughout the late 11th and early 12th centuries.

The 1088 Rebellion: A Noble Uprising in Favor of Robert Curthose

• In 1088, Bishop Odo of Bayeux, the powerful half-brother of William the Conqueror, led a noble rebellion against William Rufus in favor of Robert Curthose.
• Many Anglo-Norman nobles, preferring a weaker ruler in Robert, sought to unite England and Normandy under his rule.
• However, Robert failed to appear in England to lead the revolt, causing wavering support among the rebels.
• William Rufus secured victory by offering silver and promises of better governance, winning over key English nobles and knights.
• With the rebellion crushed, William solidified his control over England, strengthening his ability to challenge Robert in Normandy.

The 1091 Invasion of Normandy and Treaty with Robert

• With England secure, William Rufus invaded Normandy in 1091, decisively defeating Robert’s forces.
• Robert was forced to cede territory to William, further weakening his control over the duchy.
• Despite this, the two brothers reconciled, agreeing to support each other in reclaiming lost territories—especially Maine, which had fallen out of Norman hands.
• The plan to recover Maine was ultimately abandoned, but William continued his aggressive defense of Normandy and his French interests.

The 1099 War for Maine and William Rufus’ Final Campaign

• In 1099, Elias de la Flèche, Count of Maine, sought to retake Le Mans, a vital city lost to Norman rule.
• William Rufus, determined to defend his possessions, responded with fierce military action, reaffirming Norman control in the region.
• His relentless campaigning demonstrated his commitment to maintaining dominance over Normandy and Maine, even as his reign approached its final year.

Legacy and Consequences

• The conflict between William Rufus and Robert Curthose foreshadowed later struggles for control over England and Normandy, particularly after William’s death in 1100.
• The unresolved division of William the Conqueror’s lands ensured continued wars and rivalries, culminating in Henry I’s eventual seizure of Normandy in 1106.
• William’s military campaigns in Normandy and Maine reinforced the importance of the Anglo-Norman realm, influencing continental politics for decades to come.

Though William Rufus never succeeded in fully uniting England and Normandy, his aggressive campaigns, political maneuvering, and relentless defense of Norman lands made him one of the most formidable rulers of his time.

William Rufus, although an effective soldier, is a ruthless ruler and, it seems, is little liked by those he governs.

His chief minister is Ranulf Flambard, whom he had appointed Bishop of Durham in 1099: this is a political appointment, to a see that is also a great fiefdom.

The particulars of the king's relationship with the people of England are not credibly documented.

Contemporaries of William, as well as those writing after his death, roundly denounce him for presiding over what these dissenters consider to be a dissolute court.

In keeping with tradition of Norman leaders, William scorns the English and the English culture.

As regent for his brother Robert in Normandy, William from 1097 to 1099 has campaigned in France.

He has secured northern Maine but failed to seize the French-controlled part of the Vexin region.

The King appears confident of regaining the remainder of Normandy from Robert, and Henry appears ever closer to William, the pair campaigning together between 1097 and 1098 in the Norman Vexin.

He is planning in 1100 to invade Aquitaine, in southwestern France.

Henry goes hunting in the New Forest, probably near Brockenhurst, on August 2 of this year, and is killed by an arrow through the lung, though the circumstances remain unclear.

The earliest statement of the event is in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which notes that the king was "shot by an arrow by one of his own men".

Later chroniclers added the name of the killer, a nobleman named Walter Tirel, although the description of events was later embroidered with other details that may or may not be true.

The first mention of any location more exact than the New Forest comes from John Leland, who wrote in 1530 that William died at Thorougham, a place name which has since fallen into disuse but was probably located at what is now Park Farm on the Beaulieu estates.

The king's body is abandoned by the nobles at the place where he had fallen.

A peasant later finds it.

William of Malmesbury, in his account of William's death, states that the body was taken to Winchester Cathedral by a few countrymen.

To the chroniclers—men of the Church—such an 'act of God' was a just end for a wicked king.

Over the following centuries, the obvious suggestion that one of William's enemies may have had a hand in this extraordinary event has repeatedly been made: chroniclers of the time point out themselves that Tirel was renowned as a keen bowman, and thus was unlikely to have loosed such an impetuous shot.

Moreover, William's brother Henry was among the hunting party that day and benefited directly from William's death, being crowned king shortly thereafter.