The inability of the Sublime Porte, the government of the Ottoman Empire, to maintain order or to carry through its program of reform known as Tanzimat (Turkish: “Reorganization”; 1839–76), combined with the examples of Greek and Serbian independence, engender an explicitly revolutionary movement among the Bulgarians.

Inspired by the haiduk, or outlaw, tradition, Georgi Rakovski forms a Bulgarian legion on Serbian territory in 1862 to send armed bands to harass the Turks in Bulgaria, the first armed group of Bulgarians having the avowed goal of achieving independence from the Ottoman Empire.

Eastern Southeast Europe (1864–1875 CE): Cultural Revival, National Movements, and Pre-Independence Turmoil

Settlement and Migration Patterns

Hungarian and Serbian Territorial Realignments

Austria-Hungary returned Vojvodina, home to a significant Serbian population, to Hungarian control following the establishment of the Dual Monarchy in 1867. This administrative shift stirred ethnic tensions and political instability, as Hungarian authority once again attempted to assert dominance over non-Magyar populations.

Economic and Social Developments

Infrastructure and Economic Growth in the Danubian Principalities

In Romania, significant strides were made toward economic unification and modernization. The dismantling of customs barriers between Wallachia and Moldavia in the late 1840s set the stage for deeper integration. Economic progress continued under Prince Alexandru Ioan Cuza, who implemented essential infrastructure projects and agrarian reforms, though these measures were only partially successful due to entrenched boyar interests.

Cultural and Artistic Developments

Bulgarian National Revival

The Bulgarian cultural renaissance accelerated dramatically during this period. Dobri Chintulov and other literary figures produced influential works in modern Bulgarian, fueling national consciousness. Education expanded rapidly with the establishment of schools teaching in Bulgarian, notably in Gabrovo under Neofit Rilski, and the opening of schools for girls in cities like Pleven. The growth of Bulgarian-language publications and the formation of cultural institutions such as the chitalishte greatly contributed to the rise of a distinct national identity.

Serbian Literary and Cultural Awakening

Serbian national identity was similarly invigorated by scholars such as Vuk Karadžić and Dositej Obradović, who revitalized the Serbian language, folklore, and literature. Their work significantly strengthened Serbian cultural nationalism and intellectual life, creating a foundation for future national aspirations.

Intellectual and Religious Developments

Bulgarian Ecclesiastical Autonomy

The struggle for ecclesiastical independence reached a climax in 1870 when the Ottoman Sultan officially declared the Bulgarian Orthodox Church a separate exarchate, ending centuries of Greek Patriarchate dominance. This ecclesiastical autonomy became a critical milestone in Bulgaria's national consolidation, symbolizing the political and cultural separation from Greek and Ottoman influences.

Emergence of the Young Ottoman Movement

The Young Ottoman movement gained prominence among Western-oriented Ottoman intellectuals who sought reform through adopting European political models. Their advocacy for constitutional government and national integration significantly influenced Ottoman reform efforts and the broader political discourse within the empire.

Political Dynamics and Regional Rivalries

Revolts and Revolutionary Activities in Bulgaria

Bulgarian revolutionary activities intensified, spearheaded by figures such as Georgi Rakovski, Vasil Levski, and Liuben Karavelov. Their efforts culminated in the formation of the Bulgarian Revolutionary Central Committee (BRCC), which coordinated revolts against Ottoman rule, notably the September Uprising of 1875. Although these revolts were initially unsuccessful, they drew international attention to Bulgaria's plight and set the stage for greater involvement by external powers.

Romanian Political Developments

Political turbulence marked Prince Alexandru Ioan Cuza’s final years due to his increasingly unpopular reforms and perceived corruption, culminating in his forced abdication in 1866. His successor, the German-born Prince Carol I, instituted a constitutional monarchy, modernized the administration, and significantly advanced infrastructure projects, including railway construction.

International Rivalries and the Eastern Question

The weakening Ottoman Empire continued to be a central concern in European diplomacy, with Britain and France intervening to counterbalance Russian influence. This geopolitical maneuvering intensified as nationalist movements within Ottoman territories grew stronger, setting the stage for the significant territorial and political rearrangements soon to come.

Key Historical Events and Developments

• Establishment of the Dual Monarchy (Austria-Hungary) in 1867, returning Vojvodina to Hungarian control.

• Official recognition of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church as a separate entity in 1870.

• Revolutionary efforts in Bulgaria, particularly the BRCC and the September Uprising of 1875.

• Forced abdication of Prince Alexandru Ioan Cuza (1866) and subsequent ascension of Prince Carol I.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

This era laid critical foundations for Eastern Southeast Europe's subsequent political and national transformations. Cultural and religious movements bolstered national identities, while revolutionary activities against Ottoman rule highlighted the region’s growing instability, directly influencing the dramatic territorial and political shifts that occurred in the following decades.

Georgi Rakovski assembles the first armed group of Bulgarians having the avowed goal of achieving independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1862.

Rakovski, well-educated and experienced in the 1841 uprising and the drive for ecclesiastical independence, envisions a federal republic including all Balkan nations except Greece.

His fighters are to stir a full-scale national uprising after crossing into Bulgaria from assembly points in Romania and Serbia, but the Serbs, who had supported the Bulgarians while they were useful in opposing the Turks, disband the Bulgarian legions in Serbia when they no longer serve that purpose.

Although Rakovski dies in 1867 without achieving Bulgarian independence, he unites the emigre intelligentsia, and the presence of his army influences Turkish recognition of the Bulgarian church in 1870.

The Bulgarian Secret Central Committee, founded by émigré Bulgarians in Bucharest in 1866, continues Rakovski's mission under the leadership of Vasil Levski and Liuben Karavelov

These ideologues refine Rakovski's idea of armed revolutionary groups, creating a cadre of intellectuals who will prepare the people to rise for independence.

Beginning in 1868, Levski founds the first revolutionary committees in Bulgaria.

Captured by the Turks, he becomes a national hero when he is hanged in 1873.

In 1870 Karavelov founds the Bulgarian Revolutionary Central Committee (BRCC) in Bucharest.

The death of Levski temporarily shatters the group, but the committee resumes its activities when Georgi Benkovski joins its leadership in 1875.

By this time, the political atmosphere of the Balkans is charged with revolution, and the Ottoman Empire looks increasingly vulnerable.

Britain, Russia, and Austria-Hungary were growing concerned about the implications of those trends for the European balance of power.

In 1875 Bosnia and Herzegovina revolt successfully against the Turks, and the next year Serbia and Montenegro will attack the Ottoman Empire.

Cuza’s foes unite to force his abdication.

On February 23, 1866, army officers loyal to the country’s leading boyars awaken Cuza and his mistress, force the prince to abdicate, and escort him from the capital.

The next morning, street placards in Bucharest announce the prince's departure and rule by a regency pending the election of a foreign prince.

With the tacit support of Napoleon III, Ion Bratianu, the leader of Romania's Liberals, nominates as the new prince the French emperor’s twenty-seven-year-old cousin, Prince Karl of southern Germany's Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen family.

Over objections from the other European powers, the Romanians elect by plebiscite the prince, who, disguised as a salesman, travels through Austria by second-class rail and steamboat to accept the throne.

Karl’s reign in Romania, as Prince Carol I, coincides with new achievements in nation building: a constitution, based in large part on Western models, is promulgated on July 1, 1866; it establishes a bicameral legislature, gives the prince power to veto legislation, proclaims equality before the law, and contains guarantees of freedom of religion, speech, and assembly.

Most of the constitution's civil-rights provisions, however, are not enforced, and it extends voting rights only to the landed aristocracy and clergy.

The document also limits naturalization to Christians, a measure aimed at denying civil rights to Jews living in or migrating to the principality.

The Romanian Orthodox Church becomes the official state religion.

Carol, a Roman Catholic, pledges to raise his successor in the Romanian Orthodox Church.

The Romanian Parliament votes in September 1866 for the construction of a nine hundred and fifteen kilometer railway, from Varciorova in the south to Roman in the north, via the important population centers of Pitesti, Bucharest, Buzua, Braila, Galati and Tecuci, and contracted to the German Strousberg consortium for the price of two hundred and seventy thousand golden francs per kilometer.

Émigré Bulgarians Lyuben Karavelov and Vasil Levski create a Bulgarian Secret Central Committee in Bucharest in 1866 to prepare for a national uprising.

These ideologues refine Georgi Sava Rakovski's idea of armed revolutionary groups, creating a cadre of intellectuals who will prepare the people to rise for independence.

The Bulgarian Secret Central Committee dispatches “apostles” into Bulgaria to spread the message among the people.

The Turks and the Russians begin to mediate in 1866, seeking a compromise that will ensure the security of each in the face of increasing regional unrest.

Rakovski, well educated and experienced in the 1841 uprising and the drive for ecclesiastical independence, envisions a federal republic including all Balkan nations except Greece.

His fighters are to stir a full-scale national uprising after crossing into Bulgaria from assembly points in Romania and Serbia.

However, the Serbs, who had supported the Bulgarians while they were useful in opposing the Turks, disband the Bulgarian legions in Serbia when they no longer serve this purpose.