The Middle East: 1917–1774 BCE

Rise of Babylon, Amorite Dominance, and Expanding Trade Networks

Emergence and Ascendancy of Babylon

Between 1917 and 1774 BCE, the Middle East underwent significant transformations marked by the emergence of Babylon, a previously minor town on the Euphrates River, as the capital of an expansive Amorite kingdom. Under the Amorites, Babylon rose swiftly in prominence, becoming the political and cultural heart of the region. This period culminated in the rule of Hammurabi (1792–1750 BCE), whose reign significantly expanded Babylon's territorial control from the Persian Gulf and Sumer in the south to Assyria in the north.

Hammurabi's Legal Innovations

King Hammurabi established a sophisticated administrative system designed to govern a vast territory efficiently. His most renowned legacy, however, is the Code of Hammurabi, a comprehensive legal codex emphasizing justice, social order, and protection of the weak. Though not the earliest, Hammurabi's code stands out as the most complete ancient legal document, addressing issues such as land tenure, marital laws, inheritance, debt management, public order, and labor conditions, setting foundational principles for Mesopotamian society.

Trade and Economic Shifts

Trade experienced considerable growth during the early second millennium BCE, reflected in the continued wealth of the maritime trade center Dilmun. However, around 1800 BCE, Dilmun's importance began to decline, partially due to a downturn in Mesopotamian markets and the emergence of alternative trade routes. A newly developed route linked India with the Mediterranean via the Arabian Sea, the Gulf of Aden, and the Red Sea, facilitated by Egyptian infrastructure, thereby significantly reshaping regional commerce.

Conflict Between Larsa and Isin

Following the collapse of the Third Dynasty of Ur in 2004 BCE, a fierce rivalry emerged between the city-states of Larsa and Isin. Larsa, influenced heavily by Elamite culture, opposed the more Amorite-oriented Isin. Tensions intensified when Amorite leaders seized power in both cities. Gungunum of Larsa, initially appointed governor by Isin, eventually rebelled, capturing the economically strategic city of Ur. This move severely weakened Isin, contributing to its rapid political and economic decline.

Amorite and Sumerian Cultural Dynamics

Although the Sumerian people effectively disappeared following the Ur III collapse, their cultural heritage continued profoundly influencing Amorite successors. The Semitic Akkadian language replaced Sumerian in everyday use, though Sumerian persisted as a liturgical and scholarly language for many centuries thereafter. Amorite kingdoms integrated Sumerian institutions, such as administrative systems and architectural forms, blending them with their distinct cultural identities.

Assyrian Strength and Independence

Northern Mesopotamia witnessed the ascent of Assyria as a major power, centered around cities like Assur and Nineveh. Assyria successfully resisted Amorite incursions, consolidating its independence by 1900 BCE under the dynasty founded by Puzur-Ashur I. Notably powerful was King Ilushuma (1953–1935 BCE), who led military expeditions into southern Mesopotamia and established Assyrian colonies in Asia Minor. The Assyrians, pioneering military innovations such as reliable metal swords, greatly influenced regional warfare.

Anatolian Changes: Hattians and Hittites

In central Anatolia, the Hattian people, speaking a non-Indo-European language, were gradually supplanted or assimilated by the Indo-European-speaking Hittites. Hittite cultural integration was marked by the absorption of Hattian religious and mythological traditions, adopting local deities such as the Sun Goddess and the Storm God. Hittite entry into Anatolia around 1900 BCE triggered population displacements across the region, significantly reshaping demographics in Anatolia and Greece.

Expanding Anatolian Trade and Colonization

Kanesh (Kültepe) in central Anatolia emerged as a critical hub in Assyrian trade networks, hosting extensive merchant colonies (karum) from about 1920 to 1840 BCE. These Assyrian trading posts facilitated the exchange of metals and textiles for precious metals, significantly bolstering regional economies until a catastrophic destruction around 1836 BCE temporarily halted activity.

Resettlement and Urban Revivals

Post-collapse resettlements occurred around 1900 BCE, including the foundation of important trading cities such as Palmyra (Tadmor), which became vital in connecting Mesopotamia and Syria to Mediterranean trade routes. Cities like Mari also experienced a revival under Amorite rule, marking a second golden age around 1825 BCE. Likewise, Ebla and Ugarit regained prominence, influenced culturally and politically by Egypt.

Cultural and Linguistic Developments

The Hurrians, speaking a distinct ergative-agglutinative language unrelated to Indo-European or Semitic tongues, emerged prominently in northern Mesopotamia around 2000 BCE. They adopted Akkadian cuneiform script, further integrating themselves into the regional cultural landscape. Concurrently, Elamite influence peaked under the Epartid dynasty in Susa (1900–1700 BCE), with constant interactions and conflicts involving Mesopotamian states.

This period represents a dynamic era of cultural exchanges, significant migrations, administrative innovations, and extensive trade expansions, setting the stage for the powerful empires and civilizations that followed in the Middle East.

The slow collapse of the Sumerian Third Dynasty of Ur at the end of the third millennium BCE had left a power vacuum that the larger city-states, now apparently dominated by Amorites (as the Semitic speakers had come to be called), scrambled to fill.

The dynasty’s final king, Ibbi-Sin, had had neither the resources nor the organized government needed to expel the aggressive forces that were invading from Elam, and the dynasty had ended in 2004.

One of his governmental officials, Ishbi-Erra, had relocated from Ur to Isin, another city in the south of Mesopotamia, and established himself as a ruler there.

Although he is not considered part of the Third Dynasty of Ur, Ishbi-Erra had attempted to continue the dynasty, most likely to justify his rule.

Ishbi-Erra had had ill luck expanding his kingdom, however, for other city-states in Mesopotamia had risen to power also: Eshnunna and Ashur were beginning to develop as powerful centers.

However, he did have some military luck in defeating, to the point of retreat, the Elamites who had invaded Ur, which had given the Isin dynasty control over the culturally significant cities of Ur, Uruk, and the spiritual center of Nippur.

Isin had flourished during the ensuing century,  evinced by the excavated remains of large buildings projects, such as temples, and the many royal edicts and law-codes from this period.

The basic centralized political structure of Ur III had been continued, with Isin's rulers appointing governors and other local officials to carry out their will in the provinces.

Lucrative trade routes to the Arab-Persian gulf remain a crucial source of income for the city-state.

The exact events surrounding Isin's rapid disintegration as a kingdom are largely unknown, but some evidence can be pieced together.

Isin's rulers may have allowed the once-burgeoning irrigation and agricultural systems to wane, but documents indicate that access to water sources had presented a huge problem for Isin.

The city-state also endures an internal coup of a sort when a royally appointed Amorite governor of the Lagash province, Gungunum, for reasons undetermined breaks with Isin and establishes an independent dynasty in Larsa, which has long been more under Elamite than Sumerian influence.

To legitimize his rule and deliver a blow to Isin, an Amorite center, Gungunum seizes the town of Ur, which is not only a significant religious center but is the main portal to the profitable Gulf trade; this move economically cripples Isin.

Subsequent rulers of Isin appoint governors to rule over Lagash; one such governor is an Amorite named Gungunum.

He eventually breaks with Isin and establishes an independent dynasty in Larsa.

Gungunum, to legitimize his rule and deliver a blow to Isin, captures the city of Ur.

As the region of Larsa is the main center of trade via the Persian Gulf, Isin loses an enormously profitable trade route, as well as a city with much cultic significance.

Gungunum's two successors, Abisare, who reigned from about 1841 BCE to 1830 BCE) and Sumuel, who reigned from about 1830 BCE to 1801 BCE, both take steps to cut Isin completely off from access to canals.

Isin quickly loses political and economic force after this period.

Gungunum's two successors, Abisare (circa 1905 BCE) and Sumu-el (circa 1894 BCE), both take steps to cut Isin completely off from access to canals.

Isin will quickly lose political and economical force after this period.