John Burgoyne

The Second Invasion of Portugal – The Bourbon Shift to the Beira Front (July–November 1762)

Following the disastrous failure of the first invasion of Portugal (May–June 1762), Sarria’s shattered Spanish army, after suffering heavy losses in Trás-os-Montes, retreated to Ciudad Rodrigo in Spain. Once there, it was merged with the Spanish Central Army, and soon after, reinforced by 12,000 French troops under Prince de Beauvau. This reorganization gave the Bourbon forces a fresh numerical advantage, bringing their total strength to 42,000 men:

• 30,000 Spaniards, under Count of Aranda (who replaced Sarria)
• 12,000 French troops, under Prince de Beauvau

A New Plan: Abandoning Oporto, Advancing on Lisbon

With the Portuguese victory in Trás-os-Montes and the failure to capture Oporto, the Bourbon high command abandoned their original plan of invading Portugal via the northern provinces. Instead, a new strategy was devised:

• The main invasion force would now attack via the province of Beira, in the east-central region of Portugal.
• The final objective was Lisbon, the capital and political heart of Portugal.

Reorganizing for a Prolonged Campaign

Recognizing that logistical failures had doomed the first invasion, the Spanish minister Esquilache personally arrived in Portugal to improve supply chains. He established supply depots and secured food stocks for six months, ensuring the Bourbon forces would not suffer from starvation as they had before.

Portugal’s Grim Situation – A Last Resort Evacuation Plan

Despite their previous successes, the Portuguese government faced a dire reality:

• The combined Bourbon army (42,000 men) vastly outnumbered the Anglo-Portuguese forces.
• The Portuguese army remained small and ill-prepared, with only:
  • 7,000–8,000 Portuguese regulars
  • 7,104 British troops
• Lippe’s Anglo-Portuguese force was outnumbered nearly 3 to 1, facing a well-supplied enemy.

Recognizing the threat of total defeat, Prime Minister Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, the Marquis of Pombal, took precautionary measures:

• Twelve ships were assembled in the Tagus Estuary, ready to evacuate the Portuguese royal family and court to Brazil if Lisbon fell.
• This was a realistic contingency plan, as Portugal had been ruled from Brazil before (during the Spanish occupation of Portugal, 1580–1640).

The Second Invasion Begins

With their forces reorganized and resupplied, the Franco-Spanish army began its advance into Beira, initiating the second invasion of Portugal (July–November 1762).

Despite the overwhelming odds, Count Lippe and the Anglo-Portuguese forces would implement a masterful defensive strategy, utilizing guerrilla warfare, scorched earth tactics, and defensive maneuvering to once again frustrate the Bourbon invasion.

This campaign would ultimately decide the fate of Portugal, as the Bourbon forces sought to succeed where they had failed in the north—by taking Lisbon itself.

The Battle for the Tagus – Lippe's Masterful Defense and the Turning Point of the War (October 1762)

By October 1762, the Bourbon invasion of Portugal had reached a critical phase. With their initial successes in Beira, the Spanish and French forces under the Count of Aranda were now focused on breaking through the final Portuguese defenses and marching on Lisbon.

Count Wilhelm von Schaumburg-Lippe, aware of his numerical inferiority, abandoned the idea of defending the entire frontier and instead withdrew into the interior, forming a strategic defensive line along the River Tagus. This maneuver was essentially a forward defense of Lisbon, ensuring that the capital remained protected behind natural barriers.

Lippe’s Strategy – A War of Movement, Not Set-Piece Battles

Lippe’s primary objectives were:

1. Avoiding a direct battle with the superior enemy force – Instead of engaging in conventional combat, Lippe focused on controlling mountain passes and gorges, using small units to harass and attack enemy flanks.
2. Preventing the Franco-Spanish forces from crossing the River Tagus – If the enemy could cross the Tagus, they would reach Alentejo’s open plains, where their superior cavalry could march on Lisbon without opposition.

The Spanish Plan – Crossing the Tagus at Vila Velha

After capturing Almeida, Aranda moved swiftly to cross the Tagus at Vila Velha, a location historically used by Philip V of Spain to cross the river during the War of the Spanish Succession.

However, Lippe anticipated this move and acted first, securing:

• Abrantes, his main headquarters, a strategic position halfway between Lisbon and the Spanish border.
• Detachment placements:
  • Burgoyne was posted at Niza.
  • The Count of Santiago was positioned near Alvito to block the Spanish passage at Vila Velha.

When the Spanish army arrived at Vila Velha, they found that all strategic positions were already occupied and that the Portuguese had either taken or destroyed all boats—making a river crossing impossible.

This left the Bourbon forces with only two options:

1. Retreat into Spain and cross at Alcántara, which was strategically sound but dishonorable, as it implied they had been forced to withdraw before an inferior force.
2. Advance toward Lisbon via the mountains north of the city, a risky choice that played directly into Lippe’s hands.

As expected, Aranda opted for the second option, attempting a mountain march toward Lisbon.

The Bourbon Offensive Toward Abrantes

While Lippe’s Anglo-Portuguese forces fortified their positions in the mountains between the Tagus, Zêzere, and Codes rivers, the Bourbon army launched a desperate offensive aimed at breaking through toward Abrantes, Lippe’s headquarters.

The Battle of Vila Velha (October 3–5, 1762)

On October 3, the Spaniards seized the small castle of Vila Velha (on the north bank of the Tagus) and forced the defiles of St. Simon, pushing deep into Portuguese territory. A large Spanish force began pursuing the Count of Santiago’s detachment through the mountains, nearly cutting them off completely.

Realizing the danger, Lippe acted immediately, sending a reinforcement under Lord Loudoun. The combined Allied forces counterattacked and defeated the pursuing Spaniards at the River Alvito on October 3, allowing Santiago’s force to escape to Sobreira Formosa.

However, the Spanish advance had weakened their position at Vila Velha, leaving them vulnerable. On October 5, Anglo-Portuguese forces under Colonel Lee launched a decisive assault on Vila Velha, routing the Spanish garrison.

• A Spanish general was killed while trying to rally his troops.
• Several Spanish officers and soldiers were captured.
• Sixty artillery mules were seized, and enemy supplies and magazines were destroyed.

The Battle of Sabugal – A Simultaneous Allied Victory

On the same day (October 5, 1762), Portuguese forces under Townshend ambushed and defeated a French force escorting a supply convoy at Sabugal.

• A large quantity of supplies was captured, further strangling the Bourbon army’s logistics.
• This simultaneous defeat at Sabugal compounded the disaster at Vila Velha, ensuring that the Spanish offensive was completely stalled.

The Tide of War Turns – The Franco-Spanish Offensive Fails

The losses at Vila Velha and Sabugal were crippling for the Bourbon invasion:

• The offensive toward Abrantes had failed.
• The Spaniards could not cross the Tagus, preventing them from reaching Alentejo and the open plains leading to Lisbon.
• The Portuguese and British forces had proven highly effective, using strategic mobility, fortifications, and well-timed counterattacks to neutralize the numerically superior enemy.

Abrantes – The Key to Portugal

Abrantes had proved to be “the key of Portugal”, as its strategic location:

• Blocked the southern route to Lisbon.
• Served as a staging ground for Anglo-Portuguese counterattacks.
• Allowed Lippe to control enemy movements, forcing them into increasingly disadvantageous positions.

Conclusion – The War Had Turned Against Spain and France

The failure of the Bourbon army to cross the Tagus marked a turning point in the war. The Franco-Spanish offensive was over, and now, the Anglo-Portuguese forces would seize the initiative, launching counteroffensives that would force the invaders to retreat.

What had once seemed like a winning campaign for Spain and France had, by October 1762, transformed into a full-scale strategic disaster.

The Final Blow – The Pursuit and Collapse of the Franco-Spanish Army (October–November 1762)

By mid-October 1762, the Franco-Spanish army, trapped in front of Abrantes, was starving, exhausted, and demoralized. Their supply lines were shattered, their troops were deserting, and the Anglo-Portuguese forces remained well-fed and entrenched.

Recognizing that total collapse was imminent, Count Wilhelm von Schaumburg-Lippe devised a bold maneuver to complete the enemy’s defeat.

Lippe’s Masterstroke – A Psychological Encirclement

To push the invaders into full retreat, Lippe exploited their worsening morale by launching a brilliant deception campaign:

• General Townshend’s Portuguese force was ordered to maneuver toward the enemy’s rear.
• At the same time, rumors were deliberately spread that Townshend’s detachment was part of a massive British force of 20,000 newly landed troops.

The psychological effect was immediate and devastating:

• The already starving and exhausted Bourbon forces panicked, fearing they would be completely encircled.
• From October 15 onward, the invaders began a full-scale withdrawal toward Castelo Branco, where they attempted to regroup closer to the Spanish border.
• The new Spanish headquarters was hastily established there, marking the effective end of their offensive campaign.

The Anglo-Portuguese Army Goes on the Offensive

Now that the Bourbon army was in retreat, the Anglo-Portuguese forces finally abandoned their defensive positions and launched a full-scale counteroffensive.

• The retreating enemy forces were relentlessly pursued, their rear guard constantly harassed.
• Many Spanish and French soldiers were captured in the chaotic withdrawal.
• Almost all the towns and fortresses previously taken by Spain were retaken by the Portuguese, undoing months of Bourbon gains in just weeks.

The Collapse of Spanish Hopes

The entire Spanish campaign, which had once inspired such confidence in Madrid, had completely unraveled.

• Charles III’s hopes of conquering Portugal had evaporated, as nearly every territorial gain had been reversed.
• The Franco-Spanish army, which had once numbered over 42,000 men, was now shattered, with thousands dead, captured, or starving.
• The war had reached its final stage, and Spain and France were now forced to seek a diplomatic exit.

Conclusion – The End of the Invasion

Through deception, mobility, and relentless pressure, Lippe and the Anglo-Portuguese army had transformed the war from a defensive struggle into a decisive rout of the invading forces.

The Spanish dream of taking Lisbon had turned into a nightmare, and by November 1762, their entire military effort had collapsed. The war was now effectively over, with Portugal and Britain emerging victorious.

The Siege Without Walls – Starving Out the Invaders at Abrantes (October–November 1762)

By October 1762, the Franco-Spanish invasion of Portugal had stalled. The Anglo-Portuguese army under Count Wilhelm von Schaumburg-Lippe remained entrenched at Abrantes, while the Spanish and French forces under the Count of Aranda found themselves immobilized in front of the fortified Allied positions.

Although neither side launched a full-scale attack, the situation heavily favored the Anglo-Portuguese forces. While they continued to receive reinforcements and provisions, the Bourbon forces were being strangled by guerrilla warfare, starvation, and disease.

Scorched Earth – The Strategy That Destroyed the Invasion

The Portuguese scorched earth policy, carefully executed by Lippe and Pombal, turned the Province of Beira into a wasteland:

• Villages were abandoned, their inhabitants fleeing with all food supplies.
• Crops were burned and livestock was taken to prevent the enemy from foraging.
• Even houses and roads were destroyed to hinder enemy movement.

This deliberate devastation forced the Franco-Spanish army into an impossible situation:

1. They could not advance, as the fortified Anglo-Portuguese positions at Abrantes blocked the route to Lisbon.
2. They could not retreat, without admitting total failure.
3. They could not remain where they were, because they were slowly starving to death.

The starvation tactic, used successfully against the Bourbon forces in 1762, would be repeated in 1810–11 against the French army of Marshal Masséna, who, like the invaders of 1762, would find himself trapped in front of Lisbon, cut off from supplies, harassed by guerrillas, and forced into a disastrous retreat.

Lisbon – A Fortress by Geography

Lippe’s strategy capitalized on the unique geography of Portugal’s capital. To conquer Portugal, the Franco-Spanish forces had to take Lisbon, but:

• The Atlantic Ocean blocked any attack from the west.
• The Tagus River protected the city to the south and east.
• Only the mountainous terrain north of the city offered an approach—and that route was now blocked by the Allied defensive system centered on Abrantes.

With Lisbon still receiving provisions by sea, the Anglo-Portuguese army had no logistical issues, while the Bourbon invaders were collapsing from starvation.

The Franco-Spanish Army Begins to Disintegrate

Trapped in an uninhabitable wasteland, the Franco-Spanish forces faced mounting losses:

• Guerrilla fighters and militias relentlessly attacked supply convoys, further isolating the enemy army.
• Hunger ravaged the invading forces, leaving soldiers too weak to fight.
• Desertions soared, as soldiers abandoned their ranks to search for food.
• Disease spread rapidly among the starving troops, killing thousands.

The once-confident Bourbon army was now in survival mode, and retreat was becoming inevitable.

The Collapse of the Franco-Spanish Campaign

By November 1762, the invading Spanish and French armies were disintegrating. Their choices were clear:

1. Remain at Abrantes and starve.
2. Retreat while they still could—though in a shattered state.

Ultimately, the Bourbon high command chose to withdraw, abandoning their dream of conquering Portugal. The strategic brilliance of Lippe, combined with Portuguese resilience, guerrilla warfare, and the devastating scorched earth tactics, had turned the tide of war.

The defense of Lisbon was never tested, because the invaders never got close enough to attack it. Instead, they were starved into submission, much like Napoleon’s troops would be half a century later.

Conclusion – Portugal’s Victory Secured

The Second Invasion of Portugal (July–November 1762) had ended in total failure for Spain and France. Despite their vast numerical superiority, they had been outmaneuvered, outlasted, and outwitted by a smaller but more strategically mobile Anglo-Portuguese force.

The war was no longer about conquest—it was now about how many of the starving Spanish and French troops could make it back to Spain alive.

The Fall of Almeida and the Illusion of Bourbon Success (August–October 1762)

At the outset of the Second Invasion of Portugal (July–November 1762), the Anglo-Portuguese forces were in dire straits. A British observer, initially dismayed by the poor state of the Portuguese army, described its soldiers as the most "wretched troops" he had ever seen, noting that they were often left without bread for five days while their horses lacked forage.

Amid these hardships, Count Wilhelm von Schaumburg-Lippe, the Allied commander, faced overwhelming odds. At first, the Franco-Spanish forces encountered little resistance, seizing several fortresses with ruined walls and few defenders:

• Alfaiates
• Castelo Rodrigo
• Penamacor
• Monsanto
• Salvaterra do Extremo
• Segura (September 17, 1762)
• Castelo Branco (September 18, 1762)
• Vila Velha (October 2, 1762)

These fortresses surrendered almost without firing a shot, much to Lippe’s frustration. In the aftermath of the war, several Portuguese governors of these strongholds would be tried and convicted for treason and cowardice.

The Siege of Almeida – A Hollow Victory for Spain

The key stronghold of Almeida, the main fortress of Beira, was in no condition to withstand a siege. The British officer O’Hara, who had led Portuguese militias at the Battle of the Douro, advised the fortress commander to evacuate the garrison and fight in open terrain, where defense could be more sustainable. However, the commander refused, stating he could not act without superior orders.

Almeida’s Defenders and Their Plight

• The garrison consisted of two regular regiments and three militia regiments, totaling 3,000–3,500 men.
• Desertion skyrocketed as the Franco-Spanish army approached, leaving only 1,500 defenders.
• The besieging force was an overwhelming 32,000 troops (24,000 Spanish and 8,000 French).

The fortress was commanded by General Palhares, an octogenarian commander widely considered incompetent. His replacement, sent by the Portuguese government, had not arrived in time.

On August 25, 1762, after only nine days of symbolic resistance, Almeida capitulated with honors of war.

The Surrender – A Stunning Capitulation

According to General Dumouriez, the garrison had fired only five or six artillery shots before surrendering. Palhares had even forbidden firing on the enemy, and the entire battle resulted in only two Portuguese casualties.

The terms of surrender were remarkably lenient, largely because the Franco-Spanish army had been shocked at how quickly Almeida proposed to surrender:

• The garrison was allowed to leave with full honors, carrying their guns and luggage.
• They were released under the condition of not fighting Spain for six months.
• The Portuguese defenders marched to reinforce the garrison at Viseu.

Despite this remarkably easy victory, Palhares would later die in a Portuguese prison, condemned for his shameful capitulation.

Madrid Celebrates – But the War Takes a Different Turn

The capture of Almeida, along with its 83 cannons and nine mortars, was hailed as a great victory in Madrid, marking the high point of Spanish success in the war.

At this moment, Spain and France believed the war was turning in their favor. The Bourbon advance led many to assume that the fall of Lisbon was imminent. However, this illusion of victory would soon crumble, as Spain and France learned the hard lesson that occupying fortresses in a guerrilla war meant nothing.

The Fatal Error – Overextending the Franco-Spanish Army

Rather than securing a decisive advantage, the occupation of multiple strongholds became a strategic liability for the Franco-Spanish invaders:

1. Spread Too Thin – With garrisons stationed in multiple fortresses, Bourbon forces were scattered, making it difficult to concentrate their army for a decisive strike.
2. A War of Movement, Not Fortresses – Like Napoleon decades later, the Bourbon high command failed to grasp that Portugal’s war strategy was based on mobility, not static defenses.
3. The Rising Guerrilla Revolt – The occupation of these fortresses fueled national resistance, as Portuguese peasants and militias intensified their attacks on enemy supply lines.

The Guerrilla Uprising – A Growing Nightmare for the Invaders

As the Franco-Spanish army advanced deeper into Beira, they were confronted not just by the Anglo-Portuguese army, but by an increasingly emboldened guerrilla movement:

• The Portuguese militias and irregular fighters relentlessly attacked Bourbon supply convoys and small detachments.
• Communications between French and Spanish divisions were cut off, isolating their forces.
• The civilian population openly resisted, forcing the Bourbon army to expend time and resources on repression.

Even in occupied cities, resistance never ceased, as reported by Count of Aranda, who begged Lippe to intervene to stop the Portuguese popular uprising.

The Final Lesson – Fortresses Mean Nothing in a Guerrilla War

Like Napoleon during the Peninsular War (1808–1814), the Franco-Spanish commanders of 1762 would learn at their own expense that seizing fortresses, while celebrated in Spanish historiography, was ultimately irrelevant in the face of:

• Unrelenting guerrilla warfare
• Supply line disruptions
• An enemy army that refused to fight a conventional battle

Thus, while Madrid rejoiced at the fall of Almeida, the real war was being lost elsewhere, as Portugal’s scorched earth tactics, irregular resistance, and strategic maneuvering by Count Lippe would turn the tide against the invaders.

Conclusion – A Hollow Spanish Victory

While Almeida's fall seemed to signal Bourbon dominance, it did not bring them closer to their ultimate goal—Lisbon. Instead, it overstretched their forces, leaving them vulnerable to the final phase of the Portuguese counteroffensive.

This so-called victory would soon be reversed, as the Anglo-Portuguese forces, supported by the relentless Portuguese militias, would go on to reclaim lost territory and force the invaders to withdraw in total defeat.

The Brutality of the Beira Campaign and the Rise of Guerrilla Warfare (July–November 1762)

The initial successes of the Franco-Spanish invasion of Beira were, in part, aided by strong internal opposition to Prime Minister Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, the Marquis of Pombal. Many Portuguese nobles and commoners alike resented Pombal’s autocratic rule, and there was little initial enthusiasm to fight in his defense.

However, the conduct of the invading forces—particularly the massacres and plundering committed by the French troops—quickly transformed local resentment against Pombal into fury against the invaders.

The Rise of Guerrilla Warfare

Having penetrated deep into Portugal’s mountainous interior, the Franco-Spanish army soon found itself harassed and decimated by local militias, armed civilians, and guerrilla fighters.

• Portuguese guerrilleros, taking advantage of the rugged terrain, launched constant ambushes on isolated French and Spanish units.
• They cut enemy supply lines, attacked convoys, and disrupted communications, leaving the invaders stranded without resources.
• Even occupied cities and villages rebelled, forcing the Bourbon forces to expend energy and resources suppressing revolts.

The Most Feared Fighters – The Guerrilleros of Trás-os-Montes and Beira

Several French officers who participated in the campaign later testified that the most feared fighters were the Portuguese guerrilleros from Trás-os-Montes and Beira. Their knowledge of the terrain, combined with their ruthless ambush tactics, inflicted heavy losses on the enemy.

In one remarkable instance, the inhabitants of Beira wrote directly to Pombal, declaring that they did not need regular soldiers and would fight alone against the invaders.

A Cycle of Atrocities – Retaliation and Counter-Retaliation

The brutality of the war intensified, as the Portuguese guerrilleros sometimes tortured Spanish and French prisoners. In response, the Franco-Spanish forces carried out brutal retaliations against Portuguese civilians, leading to a spiral of violence.

• Villages that resisted occupation were burned, and many inhabitants were executed.
• Captured guerrilleros were summarily killed, but new fighters constantly emerged to replace them.
• Unlike the invaders, whose losses could not be easily replaced, the Portuguese peasantry had an almost inexhaustible pool of fighters.

D’Aranda’s Desperation – A Letter to Lippe

Even within occupied cities, resistance never ceased. The situation became so dire that Count of Aranda, the Spanish commander, sent a letter to Count Lippe, begging him to intervene and stop the popular resistance. But Lippe had no control over the local population, and the Portuguese continued their campaign of defiance.

Strategic Impact – The Invasion Begins to Crumble

The unrelenting harassment by guerrilla forces, coupled with the Anglo-Portuguese army’s defensive strategy, placed the Franco-Spanish army in an increasingly untenable position:

• The invaders found themselves trapped in a hostile land, without food, reinforcements, or secure supply lines.
• While Portuguese casualties could be absorbed, Spanish and French losses were devastating, as they had no way to replace their fallen troops.
• The population’s defiance, even under occupation, made it impossible for the invaders to establish control over Beira.

What had begun as a well-planned offensive toward Lisbon was rapidly turning into a nightmare for the invaders—a campaign of attrition that Spain and France could not afford to sustain.