Near East (693–682 BCE): Consolidation, Vassalage, and Judah’s Survival

Assyrian Consolidation of Coastal Palestine

By the early seventh century BCE, the Assyrian Empire firmly consolidates control over the coastal cities of Palestine. Gaza, Ashkelon, Ekron, Ashdod, and likely Gath become established as Assyrian vassal states, compelled into tributary alliances through military pressure and political diplomacy. These cities, formerly influential Philistine centers, now function primarily within the larger economic and strategic frameworks imposed by Assyria, ensuring the empire’s dominance across the critical Mediterranean coastal trade routes.

Jerusalem’s Fragile Independence

In Judah, King Hezekiah has barely managed to preserve Jerusalem amidst Assyrian aggression. Though Jerusalem withstands siege—reportedly due to a plague among the Assyrian forces described in biblical texts as divine intervention—virtually all other major Judahite centers have suffered severe destruction. Hezekiah’s resistance, although costly, secures a precarious autonomy for the southern kingdom, highlighting Jerusalem’s emerging significance as the spiritual and political center of Judah.

Succession and New Realities in Judah

In 687 BCE, King Hezekiah dies and is succeeded by his son, Manasseh. Marking a notable shift, Manasseh’s reign departs significantly from his father’s religious and political policies. Where Hezekiah sought to align Judah closely with exclusive Yahwistic worship and resisted Assyrian overlordship, Manasseh reverses these policies, aligning more closely with Assyrian interests and restoring religious pluralism, a move often criticized by later biblical tradition. This alignment ensures Judah's temporary stability under continued Assyrian dominance but begins a complex legacy of internal religious contention.

Legacy of the Era

The era 693–682 BCE encapsulates the tension between imperial subjugation and local sovereignty. Judah’s survival, narrowly maintained by Hezekiah, transitions into a period of pragmatic alignment under Manasseh, reflecting broader regional patterns of vassalage and accommodation. The consolidation of Assyrian rule over Philistine cities, coupled with Judah’s adaptive strategies under successive rulers, establishes political frameworks that will influence Near Eastern geopolitics profoundly in subsequent generations.

Hezekiah has apparently managed to outlast the Assyrian siege of Jerusalem while suffering the destruction of every other center in his kingdom.

Hezekiah's son Manasseh succeeds him in 687 BCE.

Near East (681–670 BCE): Assyrian Conquest of Egypt and Apostasy in Judah

Esarhaddon's Egyptian Campaign

The Assyrian king Esarhaddon, driven by Egypt's persistent resistance to Assyrian dominance in Syria-Palestine, initially mounts an unsuccessful invasion in 675 BCE. Undeterred, he mobilizes again in 671 BCE, targeting the powerful Nubian Pharaoh Taharqa, ruler of the Kushite Twenty-fifth Dynasty. While a portion of Esarhaddon's forces remains in the Levant to quell rebellions in strategic cities such as Tyre and possibly Ashkelon, the main Assyrian army crosses the treacherous Sinai desert—infamous for its hostile wildlife—and penetrates deep into Egypt.

Capture of Memphis and Its Aftermath

In the summer of 671 BCE, Esarhaddon successfully captures Memphis, the ancient capital, compelling Taharqa to retreat to Upper Egypt. Victorious, Esarhaddon proclaims himself "King of Egypt, Patros, and Kush," marking a significant extension of Assyrian power. To commemorate his triumph, he erects a victory stele depicting Prince Ushankhuru, Taharqa's young son, bound as a captive. Nevertheless, Egyptian resistance quickly resurfaces once Esarhaddon departs, prompting him to dispatch his general, Sha-Nabu-shu, to forcibly restore Assyrian authority along the Nile.

Judah’s Religious Reversal under Manasseh

Meanwhile, in Judah, Manasseh—Hezekiah's son and successor since 687 BCE—abruptly reverses his father's religious reforms. In sharp contrast to Hezekiah’s strict adherence to Yahweh, Manasseh openly embraces apostasy, reinstating previously banned Canaanite religious practices. According to the Hebrew Bible, he reintroduces soothsaying, augury, sorcery, and necromancy, even allegedly offering his own son as a human sacrifice. The reign of Manasseh is described by the Deuteronomic historians as one marked by widespread bloodshed, religious regression, and moral decline.

Legacy of the Era

The era from 681–670 BCE is defined by stark contrasts—while Assyria expands its empire aggressively into Egypt, signaling a peak of imperial power, Judah undergoes internal turmoil through Manasseh’s controversial reign. Esarhaddon's conquest demonstrates Assyria’s reach and resourcefulness, yet Egyptian resistance underscores the enduring difficulties of imperial control. Manasseh’s rule, meanwhile, signals deepening internal divisions in Judah, setting the stage for future religious and political upheaval.

Manasseh, unlike his reformer father, is, according to the Hebrew Bible, an apostate king who stills any prophetic outcries, reintroduces Canaanite religious practices and even offers his son as a human sacrificial victim.

Soothsaying, augury, sorcery and necromancy are also reintroduced by Manasseh. (The Deuteronomic historian also notes that many innocent persons were killed during his reign.)

Near East (669–658 BCE): Assyrian Dominance, Judah’s Controversial Stability, and the Rise of Lydia

Assyrian Authority and Egyptian Turmoil

After Esarhaddon’s unexpected death in 669 BCE, his successor, Ashurbanipal, vigorously renews Assyrian ambitions in Egypt. Pharaoh Taharqa, the Nubian ruler previously expelled by Esarhaddon, had regained control of Egypt as far north as Memphis. Ashurbanipal swiftly counters this resurgence, sending his armies to defeat Taharqa decisively, forcing him to retreat permanently to Thebes and eventually to Nubia, where he dies at Nuri in 664 BCE. Taharqa is succeeded by Tantamani, who briefly reasserts Kushite control by retaking Memphis and killing the Assyrian-appointed ruler Necho I of Sais in 664 BCE. Ashurbanipal responds severely, reconquering Egypt, sacking Thebes—an event from which the city never truly recovers—and decisively ending Nubian rule over Egypt. Ashurbanipal places Necho’s son, Psamtik I, as the Assyrian vassal king, reestablishing Assyrian dominance over Egypt.

Stability and Economic Revival under Manasseh in Judah

Manasseh of Judah remains a loyal vassal throughout Esarhaddon’s and Ashurbanipal’s reigns, appearing consistently in Assyrian records among those required to supply resources for Assyrian projects, including military campaigns against Egypt. Archaeological findings and demographic patterns support evidence of relative prosperity and stability in Judah during this era. Modern scholars, notably Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman, suggest Manasseh strategically leveraged Assyrian favor to revive Judah’s rural economy, possibly securing a privileged trading status. They argue that Manasseh’s reversal of his father Hezekiah’s strict religious reforms—restoring Canaanite high places and polytheistic worship—may have been part of an economic quid pro quo with the local aristocracy to facilitate trade and commerce.

The re-establishment of fortified settlements at sites like Arad and Horvat Uza, as well as economic vitality in southern Judah (particularly the Beersheba Valley) and the robust olive oil industry at Ekron, provide evidence supporting this theory. Yet, such economic success likely exacerbated wealth disparities, fueling internal tensions. Thus, the Deuteronomic historians portray Manasseh as a deeply wicked monarch who fostered apostasy and violence, even accusing him of sacrificing his son and persecuting followers of Yahweh (2 Kings 21, 2 Chronicles 33).

The Chronicles narrative uniquely includes a disputed tradition that Manasseh was temporarily taken captive to Assyria, repented, and was subsequently restored. However, neither the Assyrian records nor the parallel account in Kings confirms this captivity and repentance.

Philistia under Assyrian Influence

Throughout this period, Philistia remains largely under Assyrian hegemony, notably Ekron and Ashkelon, which consistently pay tribute and support Assyrian military campaigns.

Rise of the Lydian Kingdom under Gyges

Meanwhile, in Asia Minor, Gyges, legendary founder of the Mermnad dynasty, firmly establishes Lydia as a significant military and economic power around 680 BCE. Exploiting the power vacuum created by the devastating Cimmerian invasions that destroyed Phrygia, Gyges expands Lydian control across western Anatolia, capturing the flourishing Greek city of Colophon in 665 BCE, followed by attacks on Miletus and Smyrna. Demonstrating his burgeoning power and prestige, Gyges makes lavish offerings at the Greek sanctuary of Delphi, following the pattern of Phrygia’s earlier King Midas.

Nubia’s Retreat and Consolidation at Meroë

Driven out of Egypt, the Nubian dynasty retreats southward to Meroë, situated strategically in the Sudan, where they fortify their position along vital trade routes linking the Nile to the Red Sea. This relocation begins a new chapter for Nubian civilization, eventually leading to the flourishing of the distinctive Meroitic culture.

Legacy of the Era

This era (669–658 BCE) underscores Assyria’s peak dominance and geopolitical complexity, marked by aggressive imperial expansion into Egypt, strategic alliances in Judah, and vassal arrangements throughout the Near East. Concurrently, the controversial reign of Manasseh demonstrates how Judah navigates the delicate balance between Assyrian subservience, internal religious traditions, and economic prosperity. The rise of Lydia and the repositioning of Nubia at Meroë represent significant realignments that reshape political, cultural, and economic landscapes, laying foundations for future historical developments across the region.

Manasseh of Judah is mentioned in Assyrian records as a contemporary and loyal vassal of Sennacherib's son and successor, Esarhaddon.

Assyrian records list Manasseh among twenty-two kings required to provide materials for Esarhaddon's building projects.

Esarhaddon’ son Ashurbanipal also names Manasseh as one of a number of vassals who assisted his campaign against Egypt.

The Assyrian records are consistent with archaeological evidence of demographic trends and settlement patterns suggesting a period of stability in Judah during Manasseh's reign.

Despite the criticisms of his religious policies in the biblical texts, archaeologists such as Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman credit Manasseh with reviving Judah's rural economy, arguing that a possible Assyrian grant of most favored nation status stimulated the creation of an export market.

They argue that changes to the economic structure of the countryside would have required the cooperation of the 'countryside aristocracy', with restoration of worship at the high places a quid pro quo for this.

Apparent devastation of the fertile Shephelah during this period, coupled with growth of the population of the highlands and the southeast of the kingdom (especially in the Beersheba valley) during Manasseh's reign point to this possibility, as does evidence in the Gaza area of entrepôt trade, and an apparently flourishing olive oil industry at Ekron at the time.

The construction or reconstruction of forts at sites such as Arad and Horvat Uza, explored by Nadav Na'aman and others, is also argued by Finkelstein and Silberman to be evidence in support of this thesis, as they would have been needed to protect the trade routes.

However, Finkelstein and Silberman argue that the trade led to great disparities between rich and poor, which in turn gave rise to civil unrest.

As a result, the Deuteronomist author or editor of 2 Kings would later rework the traditions about Manasseh to portray his outward-looking involvement in trade as, effectively, apostasy.

Manasseh had reversed some of the religious reforms of his father Hezekiah, possibly for the economic reasons described above, restoring polytheistic worship in the Temple, for which he is condemned by the author of Kings. (2 Kings 21)

He builds altars to pagan gods. (2 Chronicles 33:1-10).

Hence, he is usually portrayed as the most wicked of the kings of Judah.

His reign may be described as reactionary in relation to his father's; and Kings suggests that he may have executed supporters of his father's reforms. (2 Kings 21:16).

According to 2 Chronicles 33:11-13, Manasseh was on one occasion brought in chains to the Assyrian king, presumably for suspected disloyalty.

However, neither 2 Kings 21 nor Assyrian records mention either Manasseh’s captivity or repentance.

Such captive kings were usually treated with great cruelty: they were brought before the conqueror with a hook or ring passed through their lips or their jaws, having a cord attached to it, by which they were led (see also 2 Kings 19:28).

The severity of Manasseh's imprisonment brought him to repentance.

The verse in Chronicles, edifying but probably unhistorical, goes on to indicate that he was later treated well and restored to his throne, abandoning idolatry, removing foreign idols (2 Chronicles 33:15) and enjoining the people to worship in the traditional Israelite manner. (2 Chronicles 33:16)

Near East (657–646 BCE): Realignments, Religious Syncretism, and Egypt’s Resurgence

Judah under Manasseh: Submission and Religious Pluralism

Throughout this era, Judah continues as a compliant ally of Assyria during the stable and prosperous reign of King Manasseh. His loyalty to Assyrian kings Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal ensures Judah’s participation in imperial building projects and military operations, contributing to increased economic prosperity.

Manasseh’s reign is marked by notable religious pluralism and syncretism, likely reflecting the cosmopolitan influence resulting from extensive Near Eastern commerce and interactions. The Temple in Jerusalem houses not only the worship of Yahweh (YHWH) but also foreign cults—including solar deities, astral gods, and Asherah, a prominent Canaanite fertility goddess. Similarly, the rural regions of Judah see a resurgence of local altars to Yahweh alongside numerous pagan shrines and foreign rituals. The Hebrew scriptures later condemn this religious diversity, highlighting Manasseh’s violent persecution of Yahwist devotees as part of his effort to consolidate religious practice under his rule.

Psamtik I and Egypt’s Reunification and Revival

With Assyrian attention occupied by unrest elsewhere, the Egyptian ruler Psamtik I seizes the opportunity to assert greater independence and consolidate power over Egypt. Psamtik strategically employs Greek mercenaries, successfully taking control of northern Egypt around 656 BCE. He quickly moves to reunify the divided nation by dispatching a powerful naval force to Thebes in March 656 BCE, compelling the Nubian-appointed God’s Wife of Amun, Shepenupet II, to adopt his daughter Nitocris I as her successor. Recorded on the so-called Adoption Stela, this diplomatic maneuver effectively ends the remaining influence of the Nubian Twenty-fifth Dynasty in Upper Egypt.

Psamtik actively encourages the growth of Greek settlements, deepening Hellenic influence in Egyptian military and commercial activities. His vigorous military campaigns—especially against Libyan raiders in Egypt’s Dakhla Oasis—demonstrate his resolve in reestablishing centralized Egyptian authority.

Kushite Consolidation at Meroë

Expelled definitively from Egypt, the Kushite dynasty relocates its political center further southward to Meroë around 656 BCE, strategically positioned along vital caravan trade routes connecting the Nile to the Red Sea. After King Tantamani’s death in 653 BCE, he is succeeded by Atlanersa, son of Taharqa, who continues to rule from this newly established Kushite heartland, marking the start of Meroë’s long ascendancy as the primary cultural and political hub of Nubia. Atlanersa is interred in the royal cemetery at El-Kurru, preserving dynastic continuity and heritage.

Gyges and the Fall of Lydian Ambitions

In Asia Minor, the once formidable Lydian king Gyges encounters severe setbacks due to shifting regional alliances. His decision to support Psamtik’s Egyptian revolt against Assyria in 654 or 652 BCE causes the Assyrians to withdraw their previously crucial military backing. Exposed and vulnerable, Lydia faces another invasion by the Cimmerians, who decisively defeat Gyges. The exact date remains unclear, but Gyges’ death during this invasion significantly weakens Lydia’s standing as a regional power.

Legacy of the Era

This period (657–646 BCE) is characterized by shifting political and military realignments across the Near East. Judah under Manasseh balances between religious syncretism, political submission, and economic growth. Meanwhile, Egypt’s reunification under Psamtik I ends decades of foreign domination, reasserting native Egyptian power augmented by Greek military and commercial partnerships. Simultaneously, Kush repositions itself at Meroë, initiating a new chapter in its dynastic history, while Lydia experiences a sharp reversal, illustrating the volatility of power dynamics in the region.

Judah is a submissive ally of Assyria during the long and peaceful reign of Manassehm, whose forces have served in the building and military operations of the Assyrian kings Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal.

Judah benefits from the upsurge of commerce that has resulted from the political unification of the whole Near East.

The royal sanctuary becomes the home of a congeries of foreign gods—the sun, astral deities and Asherah, the female fertility deity, all have their cults there alongside YHWH.

The countryside also is provided with pagan altars and priests, alongside the local YHWH altars that are revived.

Presumably, at least some of the blood that Manasseh is said to have spilled freely in Jerusalem must have belonged to the devotees of YHWH.

Near East (645–634 BCE): Regional Upheavals and Judah’s Opportunity for Renewal

Cimmerian Conquests and the Crisis at Sardis

In Lydia, the aftermath of Gyges’ defeat continues to reverberate. Approximately ten years after Gyges' death, his son Ardys II faces a renewed and devastating Cimmerian assault. This time, in a decisive campaign around 644 BCE, the Cimmerians succeed in capturing Sardis, Lydia’s capital, although its fortified citadel narrowly withstands the siege. This dramatic defeat sends shockwaves through Asia Minor and profoundly unsettles the Greek colonies along the Ionian coast, as vividly reflected in the fearful verses composed by contemporary Greek poets Callinus and Archilochus.

Judah’s Transition and Self-Rule Under Josiah

Meanwhile, Judah, having been a vassal to the Assyrian Empire for a century since the reign of Ahaz, witnesses dramatic internal changes. Assyrian domination has brought foreign religious influences and suppressed traditional Yahwist practices, contributing to ongoing social and religious tensions.

In 641/640 BCE, Amon, son and successor of Manasseh, is assassinated after ruling Judah for only two years. Following his assassination, the politically influential faction known as the "People of the Land" places Amon’s eight-year-old son Josiah on the throne. Josiah’s ascension coincides with a critical geopolitical shift: Assyria’s grip on power is weakening, the Neo-Babylonian Empire has yet to emerge fully, and Egypt under Psamtik I remains occupied with internal consolidation. Consequently, Judah finds itself uniquely positioned to assert a degree of autonomy unprecedented in recent memory, providing Josiah and his advisors a rare window of opportunity for internal political and religious reforms.

Psamtik I: Diplomatic Consolidation in Egypt

In Egypt, Psamtik I continues to solidify his hold on power through astute diplomatic measures. Having previously reunified the country, he now successfully secures the allegiance of local rulers in southern Egypt through careful negotiations and alliances, minimizing internal resistance and establishing a stable and centralized rule throughout the entire Nile Valley.

Aeolian Expansion on the Anatolian Coast

Concurrent with these developments, the western Anatolian coast experiences a second wave of Aeolian Greek colonization. Among the new settlements is the strategically placed city of Assus, founded by colonists from Methymna on Lesbos. Constructed upon steep, terraced slopes overlooking the Gulf of Adramyti (modern Edremit), Assus rapidly develops into a crucial maritime hub, controlling the only viable harbor on the gulf’s northern shore and dominating regional trade routes along the Anatolian coastline.

Legacy of the Era

The era of 645–634 BCE is marked by significant regional upheaval and realignment. The Cimmerian invasion profoundly reshapes power dynamics in Asia Minor, instilling widespread insecurity that resonates deeply within the Greek colonies. Judah’s newfound political breathing room under young Josiah sets the stage for a profound religious and social revival. In Egypt, Psamtik’s patient and effective diplomacy continues to consolidate the country’s recovery from foreign domination. Collectively, these events underscore the volatility and fluidity of political and cultural boundaries across the Near East in this transformative period.

Amon, who succeeds his father Manasseh as king of Judah, is assassinated in a palace revolution after a reign of only two years.

When Amon’s eight-year-old son Josiah is placed on the throne of Judah by the "People of the Land" in 641/640 BCE, the international situation is in flux: to the east, the Assyrian Empire is in the beginning stages of its eventual disintegration, the Babylonian Empire has not yet risen to replace it, and Egypt to the west is still recovering from Assyrian rule.

Jerusalem in this power vacuum is able to govern itself without foreign intervention.