The seventeenth century in Spain is a period of unremitting political, military, economic, and social decline.

Neither Philip III (r. 1598- 1621) nor Philip IV (r. 1621-65) is competent to give the kind of clear direction that Philip II had provided.

Responsibility passes to aristocratic advisers.

Gaspar de Guzmán, count-duke of Olivares, attempts and fails to establish the centralized administration that his famous contemporary, Cardinal Richelieu, had introduced in France.

In reaction to Guzman's bureaucratic absolutism, Catalonia revolts and is virtually annexed by France.

Portugal, with English aid, reasserts its independence in 1640, and an attempt is made to separate Andalusia from Spain.

In 1648, at the Peace of Westphalia, Spain assents to the emperor's accommodation with the German Protestants, and in 1654 it recognizes the independence of the northern Netherlands.

Portugal and its Brazilian subjects have divergent interests in responding to the Dutch.

When the Duke of Braganca takes the throne as João IV in 1640, his government faces the determination of Philip IV to reconquer Portugal, and he therefore needs to maintain peace with the rest of Europe.

As much as the Portuguese economy needs the revenues from the sugar trade, the court has to face the reality that in Europe the Dutch dominate a good portion of that trade.

Thus, if Portugal attacks Dutch-held Pernambuco, it will earn an enemy in Europe and lose access to the market.

At the same time, the king understands the importance of Brazil when he calls it his milk cow (vaca de kite).

Indeed, historian Charles Boxer will assert that Portugal's independence depended chiefly on the Brazil trade, which centered on sugar and slavery.

The Dutch do not show the same hesitation.

In 1641 they seize Luanda, an important source of enslaved Africans, in violation of a truce with Portugal.

Holland now holds sugar and slave ports in the South Atlantic and the distribution system in Europe.

Lisbon cannot merely abandon its subjects in Brazil, but it realizes that it will be foolhardy to fight for the sugar area without also regaining the source of enslaved Africans.

The colonists in the Dutch-occupied area play their own game of deception.

They borrow Dutch money to restore their war-torn plantations and engenhos and to buy slaves, but they realize that their long-term interests lie in expelling the Dutch and with them their indebtedness.

After 1645, together with the governor general in Bahia, they conspire, rebel, and fight against the Dutch.

Their victories of 1648 and 1649 at the Battle of Guararapes in the Recife area of Pernambuco are commemorated today.

However, after nine years of war the scorched-earth tactics have ravaged the region.

Atlantic Southwest Europe (1612–1623 CE): Imperial Decline, Deepening Strains, and Early Signs of Revolt

Between 1612 and 1623 CE, Atlantic Southwest Europe—including northern Portugal, Galicia, Asturias, Cantabria, northern León and Castile, northern Navarre, northern Rioja, and the Basque Country—faced escalating economic crises, intensified political frustrations, and persistent social tensions within the broader context of Iberian imperial overstretch. Under Spanish Habsburg rule, increasingly strained by ambitious global conflicts, the region exhibited mounting resistance to centralized control, laying the groundwork for profound political upheaval later in the seventeenth century. Regional identities strengthened, and cultural resilience persisted despite severe religious restrictions and economic hardships.

Political and Military Developments

Imperial Overreach and Regional Resentment

The reigns of Philip III (1598–1621 CE) and his successor Philip IV (1621–1665 CE) witnessed Spain’s continued participation in ambitious international conflicts, particularly the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648 CE). These prolonged military engagements demanded substantial resources, soldiers, and funds from northern Spanish provinces, intensifying regional dissatisfaction. Local elites, particularly in the Basque Country, Galicia, and northern Portugal, increasingly viewed Madrid’s central authority as excessively oppressive, disconnected from regional needs, and responsible for deepening economic hardship.

Rising Unrest and Autonomy Movements

In northern Portugal, notably in Porto, Braga, and Viana do Castelo, growing anti-Spanish sentiment began to coalesce into more structured autonomy movements. These sentiments foreshadowed future rebellions, especially the decisive Portuguese Restoration War beginning in 1640. Similarly, Basque provinces and northern Navarre intensified their demands for preservation and even expansion of traditional local rights (fueros), successfully resisting Madrid’s attempts at greater administrative uniformity and centralization.

Economic Developments and Maritime Decline

Fiscal Crisis, Inflation, and Economic Instability

Persistent inflation severely impacted local economies across the region, particularly in northern Portugal, Galicia, Cantabria, and the Basque territories. Increasing taxation to fund Spanish imperial conflicts exacerbated productivity declines in agriculture, textiles, iron manufacturing, and maritime commerce. Northern ports like Bilbao, Santander, and Porto suffered from disruptions due to piracy, wartime conflicts, and fierce competition from Dutch and English maritime rivals, significantly undermining regional economic stability.

Agricultural Hardships and Rural Poverty

Rural areas, particularly Galicia, Asturias, and northern León and Castile, continued facing chronic agricultural crises. Repeated poor harvests, inadequate investment, excessive taxation, and demographic pressures drove substantial rural poverty, prompting increased internal migration toward urban centers and significant emigration overseas, especially to the Americas. This rural exodus intensified urban demographic pressures and deepened socioeconomic divides.

Religious and Cultural Developments

Persistent Dominance of Counter-Reformation Orthodoxy

The Counter-Reformation maintained its powerful presence, actively enforced by inquisitorial tribunals operating rigorously in Valladolid, Coimbra, Braga, and Pamplona. Religious authorities continued aggressive surveillance and prosecution of suspected Protestants, conversos, and intellectual dissidents, severely restricting intellectual freedom and maintaining a climate of stringent doctrinal conformity.

Regional Cultural Resilience Amid Orthodoxy

Despite rigid religious orthodoxy, regional cultural identities persisted robustly. Folklore, literature, music, and language traditions in Galicia, the Basque Country, Asturias, Cantabria, and northern Portugal subtly expressed resistance to centralized assimilation. Local artistic circles and intellectual networks cautiously fostered regional traditions, emphasizing local distinctiveness and historical narratives as implicit forms of opposition to imperial homogenization.

Artistic and Scholarly Patronage within Constraints

Religious and educational institutions, notably universities in Coimbra, Valladolid, and ecclesiastical centers throughout northern Spain, continued to promote scholarship, religious literature, and classical learning within carefully controlled parameters. Artistic patronage persisted predominantly through religious commissions reflecting Counter-Reformation themes, with notable projects in Braga, Santiago de Compostela, Burgos, and Valladolid reinforcing ecclesiastical prestige and orthodoxy.

Social and Urban Developments

Rising Social Unrest and Urban Tensions

Economic distress, heavy taxation, and compulsory military service intensified social tensions throughout the region. Major cities—including Porto, Braga, Bilbao, Santander, Valladolid, and Burgos—witnessed sporadic urban unrest and public disturbances, reflecting widespread dissatisfaction among urban merchant classes, artisans, and lower-income populations. Urban elites increasingly advocated for greater local autonomy, lower taxes, and improved economic management, challenging centralized governance.

Rural-Urban Migration and Demographic Pressures

Deepening rural poverty and agricultural stagnation fostered significant demographic shifts toward urban centers and overseas colonies, especially to the Americas. This rural-to-urban migration placed heavy burdens on urban resources, exacerbating social inequalities and amplifying urban poverty. Consequently, urban authorities struggled to manage escalating pressures arising from demographic changes.

Preservation of Basque and Navarrese Autonomy

The Basque territories and northern Navarre continued resolutely defending their traditional privileges, successfully maintaining significant regional autonomy and administrative distinctiveness. Their unwavering defense of fueros provided crucial stability, significantly influencing regional political dynamics and laying important foundations for future autonomy movements and regional identity politics.

Notable Regional Groups and Settlements

• Portuguese (Northern Regions): Demonstrated escalating resistance toward Spanish rule, with growing autonomy sentiments foreshadowing future rebellions and decisive political shifts.

• Spaniards (Castilians, Cantabrians, Riojans): Experienced intensified economic distress, heavy taxation, and military demands, fueling social unrest and resistance against centralized imperial policies.

• Galicians: Maintained cultural vitality and resilience despite persistent economic hardships, agricultural stagnation, and heightened religious repression, significantly reinforced through pilgrimage traditions and local cultural expressions.

• Basques (Navarre): Successfully defended extensive local autonomy, preserving regional identity, governance, and cultural distinctiveness amid escalating centralizing pressures from Madrid.

Long-Term Significance and Legacy

Between 1612 and 1623 CE, Atlantic Southwest Europe:

• Witnessed escalating political and social tensions, economic hardships, and increasing resistance to centralized Habsburg rule, laying critical groundwork for subsequent regional rebellions, particularly the Portuguese Restoration War (1640).

• Experienced deepening economic instability, inflationary pressures, agricultural decline, and maritime disruptions, decisively shaping long-term regional economic structures and demographic dynamics.

• Maintained cultural and religious life shaped profoundly by persistent Counter-Reformation orthodoxy yet preserved regional identities and traditions through subtle cultural resistance and expressions of local heritage.

• Successfully preserved significant regional autonomy, notably in Basque and Navarrese territories, significantly influencing regional stability and future autonomy struggles.

This transformative era decisively influenced Atlantic Southwest Europe’s historical trajectory, setting the stage for intensified regional resistance, economic adaptations, and enduring cultural resilience amid growing imperial decline, ultimately reshaping political, social, and economic landscapes throughout the seventeenth century.

Atlantic West Europe (1612–1623): Religious Conflict, Economic Growth, and Early Baroque Flourishing

The period 1612–1623 in Atlantic West Europe—including northern France, the Low Countries (the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg), and the Atlantic and Channel coastal regions—was marked by significant religious and political tensions, ongoing economic prosperity, particularly in the Dutch Republic, and notable artistic and intellectual developments. Amidst deepening divisions, the region saw sustained commercial dynamism, evolving political landscapes, and heightened cultural creativity characteristic of early Baroque Europe.

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Political and Military Developments

Dutch Republic: Religious Strife and Internal Division

• Following the Twelve Years' Truce (1609–1621), the Dutch Republic enjoyed temporary peace but faced intense internal religious conflicts, primarily between the Calvinist factions: strict orthodox Gomarists and the moderate, tolerant Arminians.

• The political struggle climaxed in the Synod of Dort (1618–1619), resulting in the condemnation of Arminianism, and the subsequent execution of the influential statesman Johan van Oldenbarnevelt (1619), consolidating power under the orthodox Calvinists and the House of Orange.

France: Political Instability and Royal Minority

• France faced renewed instability after the assassination of Henry IV (1610). His son, Louis XIII (r. 1610–1643), assumed the throne at nine, initiating a regency under Marie de' Medici, characterized by internal strife, noble rebellions, and court intrigue.

• The period saw the rise of Cardinal Richelieu, who entered the royal council in 1624, beginning the consolidation of royal authority, but in these early years, political control was fragmented and uncertain, weakening France temporarily.

Spanish Netherlands: Military Pressure and Strategic Positioning

• The Spanish Netherlands, governed from Brussels, remained militarized and strategically important. The Spanish monarchy under Philip III (r. 1598–1621) and later Philip IV (r. 1621–1665) sought to fortify the southern Low Countries against future conflicts, preparing defenses around Antwerp, Ghent, and Bruges, while maintaining firm Catholic orthodoxy against Protestant incursions from the Dutch Republic.

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Economic Developments: Maritime Prosperity and Expanding Trade Networks

Continued Dutch Economic Expansion

• Amsterdam reinforced its role as Europe's financial and commercial hub, dominated by the Dutch East India Company (VOC), whose Asian trade brought immense wealth into the Republic. The VOC’s monopoly ensured Amsterdam’s financial markets thrived, becoming Europe’s center for banking, commodity trading, and financial innovation.

• Dutch shipbuilding and navigation advancements increased maritime trade capacity, fostering expansive commerce with Baltic, Mediterranean, Atlantic, and Asian markets.

French and Flemish Trade Recovery

• French port cities—Bordeaux, La Rochelle, and Nantes—expanded their maritime commerce. Bordeaux's wine exports to England and Northern Europe grew significantly, establishing the city's global reputation for high-quality wines.

• Flemish towns under Spanish governance, particularly Antwerp, partially recovered economically, albeit constrained by military and religious restrictions. Nonetheless, Antwerp continued modest financial activities, trading primarily in luxury goods and textiles.

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Religious and Intellectual Developments

Dutch Religious Polarization

• The Synod of Dort decisively shaped Dutch Calvinism, reinforcing religious orthodoxy while significantly reducing tolerance toward dissent. The Synod's rulings profoundly impacted Dutch religious, cultural, and intellectual life, with lasting repercussions on religious minorities such as the Arminians and Mennonites.

Catholic Renewal and Counter-Reformation Influence

• The Catholic Counter-Reformation strengthened in the Spanish Netherlands and northern France, bolstered by new religious orders, notably the Jesuits, who significantly influenced education, missionary activity, and theological scholarship.

• Catholic educational institutions flourished in France (Sorbonne, Jesuit colleges) and the Spanish Netherlands (University of Leuven), promoting Catholic theology and Baroque cultural expression.

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Cultural and Artistic Developments

Early Baroque Art and Cultural Patronage

• The Dutch Republic experienced a remarkable flowering of visual arts, with painters such as Frans Hals in Haarlem, whose dynamic portraits embodied early Baroque realism. Emerging artists like the young Rembrandt van Rijn (active from the early 1620s) began their careers, heralding a golden age of Dutch painting.

• Flemish artist Peter Paul Rubens, based in Antwerp, gained prominence during this period. His elaborate, vibrant Baroque style gained international acclaim, influencing European art profoundly through commissions from Spanish, French, and English patrons.

French Artistic and Cultural Life

• France’s artistic expression continued its shift towards early Baroque styles, strongly influenced by court patronage under Marie de' Medici. Parisian architecture and arts reflected royal authority and ambition, exemplified by the construction of the Luxembourg Palace (1615–1625), a central Baroque architectural project initiated by Marie de' Medici.

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Social and Urban Developments

Urbanization and Social Mobility

• Amsterdam’s population soared, driven by prosperity, religious refugees, and international merchants, resulting in significant urban expansion, improved public infrastructure, and increased social mobility.

• French urban centers, including Bordeaux, Nantes, and Rouen, benefited economically from expanded maritime trade, fostering a dynamic urban merchant class contributing to regional growth and stability.

Rural Hardship and Migration

• Conversely, rural regions in northern France and parts of the southern Low Countries continued to face hardships due to recurring harvest failures, heavy taxation, and ongoing warfare preparations, prompting significant rural-to-urban migration and exacerbating urban poverty in some areas.

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Legacy and Historical Significance

The era 1612–1623 in Atlantic West Europe significantly shaped regional political, religious, and cultural landscapes:

• Politically, the Dutch Republic solidified its internal structure around Calvinist orthodoxy, setting conditions for future stability yet reducing religious pluralism. France, conversely, faced short-term fragmentation and instability, awaiting Richelieu’s forthcoming political consolidation.

• Economically, sustained commercial and maritime prosperity entrenched Amsterdam’s economic preeminence, furthering Atlantic West Europe’s global influence.

• Religiously, the decisive internal struggles within Dutch Calvinism and intensified Counter-Reformation activity in Catholic regions laid a crucial groundwork for future religious and cultural developments.

• Culturally, the early Baroque flourished prominently, represented by figures like Rubens and emerging Dutch masters, signaling an artistic golden age that influenced European cultural trends for centuries.

Thus, by 1623, Atlantic West Europe had navigated considerable turmoil and transformation, setting a resilient foundation for continued political, economic, religious, and cultural evolution into the heart of the seventeenth century.

Marie de Medicis had showed little sign of political acumen or ability before the assassination in 1610 of her husband, Henry IV of France.

Confirmed as Regent by the Parlement of Paris just hours after Henry's assassination in 1610, she has proven not very bright and extremely stubborn.

Growing obese, she has for some years now been entirely under the influence of her maid Leonora "Galigai" and the latter's unscrupulous Italian husband, Concino Concini, Count della Penna, a Florentine native who had arrived France in the Queen’s train, had combined his court connections with wit and boldness to make his fortune.

He had in 1610 purchased the marquisate of Ancre and the position of first gentleman-in-waiting.

He had then obtained successively the governments of Amiens and of Normandy, governor of Péronne, Roye and Montdidier and in 1613 the baton of marshal of France, despite never having fought a battle.

The Queen had become Regent of France when the nine-year old Louis ascended the throne; although her son had reached the legal age of majority in 1614, she remains the effective ruler of the realm.

Under the Regent's lax and capricious rule, the princes of the blood and the great nobles of the kingdom had revolted, and the queen, too weak to assert her authority, had consented on May 15, 1614) to buy off the discontented princes.

The opposition is led by Henry II de Bourbon-Condé, Duc d'Enghien, the third Prince of Condé, who has pressured Marie into convoking the Estates General. (This will turn out to be the last time they are to meet in France until the opening events of the French Revolution.)

Through Concini and the Regent, Italian representatives of the Roman Catholic Church hope to force the suppression of Protestantism in France.

Half Habsburg herself, Marie has abandoned the traditional anti-Habsburg French policy.

Throwing her support to Habsburg Spain, she arranges the marriage of her 13-year-old daughter, Elisabeth, to the future Philip IV of Spain.

The construction and furnishing of the Palais du Luxembourg in Paris, which the queen refers to as her Palais Médicis, forms her major artistic project.

The site had been purchased in 1612 and construction begins in 1615, to designs of Salomon de Brosse.

The Portrait of Philip IV in Armour, a portrait of Philip IV of Spain by Velázquez now in the Museo del Prado in Madrid, is one of the artist's most realistic portraits of Philip IV and is one of the first he produces after being made painter to the king in 1623.

Its style corresponds to the artist's beginnings in Seville and shows its subject in a sculptural style like a portrait bust, with abrupt color contrasts.

Atlantic Southwest Europe (1624–1635 CE): Deepening Crisis, Economic Decline, and Prelude to Revolt

Between 1624 and 1635 CE, Atlantic Southwest Europe—including northern Portugal, Galicia, Asturias, Cantabria, northern León and Castile, northern Navarre, northern Rioja, and the Basque Country—experienced intensifying political pressures, deepening economic crisis, and rising cultural alienation from centralized Spanish Habsburg rule. As King Philip IV of Spain expanded imperial ambitions, regional tensions escalated, driven by burdensome taxation, declining maritime commerce, and persistent religious repression. This tumultuous era laid essential foundations for subsequent political upheavals, notably the Portuguese Restoration War (1640), reshaping regional identities, autonomy movements, and cultural trajectories.

Political and Military Developments

Imperial Struggles and Regional Backlash

Under Philip IV (1621–1665 CE), Spain deepened its military involvements across Europe, notably in the ongoing Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648 CE). Rising imperial demands for troops, resources, and financial contributions significantly strained Atlantic Southwest Europe’s regional economies and societies. Local frustration intensified sharply among elites and populations in northern Portugal, Galicia, Asturias, Cantabria, and northern Castile, fueling widespread resentment against perceived central exploitation.

Growing Portuguese Discontent and Mobilization

Northern Portugal, particularly cities like Porto, Braga, and Viana do Castelo, saw increasing anti-Spanish sentiments among regional nobility and merchant elites, who quietly began mobilizing political networks in anticipation of potential rebellion. This mounting dissatisfaction and preparation foreshadowed Portugal’s definitive break from Spanish rule in 1640.

Basque and Navarrese Resistance and Preservation of Autonomy

The Basque provinces (Biscay, Gipuzkoa, Álava) and northern Navarre continued their robust defense of traditional fueros, firmly resisting Madrid’s attempts to impose fiscal uniformity, heavier taxation, and military conscription. Basque and Navarrese elites strategically utilized their historical privileges to protect regional autonomy, sharply escalating political tensions with the central authority in Madrid.

Economic Developments and Maritime Decline

Intensified Fiscal Crisis and Inflationary Pressures

The prolonged imperial conflicts further intensified fiscal demands, exacerbating economic hardships throughout the region. Merchants, artisans, and urban populations in Bilbao, Santander, Porto, Braga, and Burgos struggled under severe taxation, further aggravated by rampant inflation due to the continued influx of American silver and fiscal mismanagement.

Maritime Trade Disruptions and Industrial Decline

Maritime commerce from key Atlantic ports—Bilbao, Santander, Porto, Vigo, and San Sebastián—suffered significant disruptions due to frequent attacks by Dutch and English fleets, competitive pressures, and wartime blockades. The local shipbuilding, fishing, and maritime trade industries experienced sharp declines, leading to rising unemployment, economic stagnation, and growing urban poverty along the northern Iberian coast.

Agricultural Crisis and Persistent Rural Poverty

Galicia, Asturias, northern León, and inland Castile continued experiencing chronic agricultural downturns marked by poor harvests, inadequate infrastructure, demographic pressures, and excessive taxation. These factors compelled substantial rural populations to migrate toward urban centers and overseas territories—particularly Brazil and New Spain—in search of better economic prospects, reshaping regional demographic patterns.

Religious and Cultural Developments

Continued Dominance of Counter-Reformation Orthodoxy

Counter-Reformation orthodoxy remained firmly entrenched through rigorous inquisitorial tribunals operating in Valladolid, Coimbra, Braga, and Pamplona. Religious authorities maintained tight doctrinal controls, actively prosecuting conversos, Protestant sympathizers, and intellectual dissenters, significantly restricting open intellectual debate and scholarly innovation.

Growth of Regional Identities and Cultural Resistance

Despite rigid orthodoxy and centralized cultural repression, regional cultural identities in Galicia, the Basque Country, Asturias, Cantabria, and northern Portugal strengthened significantly. Local languages, literature, folklore, and music increasingly served as subtle yet powerful forms of resistance to Madrid’s centralizing pressures, enhancing regional cultural resilience and local identities.

Portuguese Intellectual Awakening and National Identity

In northern Portugal, intellectual elites, influenced by broader European Renaissance and early Baroque currents, fostered a distinct Portuguese cultural identity. Intellectual networks centered in universities like Coimbra cautiously promoted regional literature, historical scholarship, and humanist thought, laying important foundations for future nationalist movements and the coming Portuguese Restoration.

Social and Urban Developments

Increasing Social Unrest and Urban Tensions

Economic hardship, excessive taxation, and military conscription demands intensified social unrest across urban centers, notably in Porto, Braga, Bilbao, Santander, Pamplona, Valladolid, and Burgos. Public demonstrations, riots, and protests became increasingly frequent, expressing widespread dissatisfaction among merchant classes, artisans, and urban populations. Urban elites, increasingly vocal, pressed for reduced taxation, improved economic management, and greater regional autonomy.

Rural Distress, Demographic Shifts, and Urban Pressures

Deepening rural poverty drove significant internal migration toward urban centers, particularly Porto, Bilbao, Santander, and northern cities in Castile and León. This rural-to-urban shift severely strained urban resources, exacerbating poverty, social inequality, and tensions between established urban populations and newly arrived rural migrants.

Preservation of Basque and Navarrese Regional Autonomy

Basque and Navarrese communities continued their successful preservation of local governance structures and distinct cultural identities through vigorous defense of their traditional fueros. This defense provided critical regional stability amidst broader imperial uncertainties, reinforcing regional pride, administrative continuity, and cultural resilience.

Notable Regional Groups and Settlements

• Portuguese (Northern Regions): Increasingly mobilized politically against Spanish domination, setting the stage for definitive rebellion and national restoration movements.

• Spaniards (Cantabrians, Castilians, Riojans): Struggled significantly under heightened economic burdens, military demands, and social unrest, fueling broader regional resistance against centralized imperial rule.

• Galicians: Maintained cultural vibrancy and resilience despite persistent economic hardships and agricultural decline, reinforced by pilgrimage traditions and local cultural expressions.

• Basques (Navarre): Successfully defended extensive regional autonomy and cultural distinctiveness despite intensified pressures from Madrid, decisively shaping regional stability and identity politics.

Long-Term Significance and Legacy

Between 1624 and 1635 CE, Atlantic Southwest Europe:

• Experienced profound economic crisis, fiscal strain, and intensifying regional resentment toward centralized Habsburg authority, decisively laying groundwork for later transformative revolts, notably the Portuguese Restoration (1640).

• Endured severe maritime disruptions, industrial decline, and agricultural crises, significantly reshaping regional economies and demographic structures through migration patterns and urbanization pressures.

• Preserved and enhanced regional cultural identities and traditions despite stringent Counter-Reformation repression, influencing enduring cultural resilience, local heritage preservation, and emergent national identities.

• Reinforced significant regional autonomy, particularly within the Basque and Navarrese territories, setting precedents for future autonomy struggles and regional governance structures.

This critical era profoundly influenced Atlantic Southwest Europe’s historical trajectory, clearly signaling impending revolts, reshaped regional identities, heightened economic challenges, and enduring cultural resilience amidst imperial decline, significantly shaping the region’s subsequent political, social, and cultural landscapes.

Atlantic West Europe (1624–1635): Renewed Conflict, Centralization, and Baroque Cultural Ascendancy

The period 1624–1635 in Atlantic West Europe—comprising northern France, the Low Countries (the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg), and Atlantic-facing regions—was dominated by renewed military conflict, political centralization, economic prosperity coupled with financial stress, and a vivid flourishing of Baroque art and culture. Intensified involvement in the Thirty Years' War significantly impacted political alliances, while culturally, the region embraced vibrant artistic creativity and scientific inquiry.

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Political and Military Developments

France: Richelieu and Centralized Authority

• Cardinal Richelieu rose to prominence as Louis XIII's chief minister (1624), initiating far-reaching reforms aimed at consolidating royal power and diminishing noble influence.

• Richelieu’s anti-Habsburg policies increasingly drew France into the Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648), supporting Protestant states and weakening Spain and the Austrian Habsburgs. His decisive intervention (1635) openly committed France to war, reshaping European political dynamics.

Dutch Republic: Resumption of Conflict with Spain

• With the expiration of the Twelve Years' Truce in 1621, hostilities resumed between the Dutch Republic and Spain. During 1624–1635, the Republic reinforced military capabilities, especially naval power, intensifying the war against Spanish forces.

• Frederick Henry of Orange, Stadtholder (r. 1625–1647), led successful military campaigns, capturing strategic cities such as 's-Hertogenbosch (1629) and Maastricht (1632), significantly consolidating Dutch territorial security.

Spanish Netherlands: Ongoing Military and Religious Pressures

• The Spanish Netherlands continued as a critical theater in the wider European conflict. Spanish forces under Governor-General Infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia (d.1633) struggled to defend southern provinces from Dutch incursions, maintaining firm Catholic rule through military strength and religious uniformity.

• Following Isabella’s death (1633), direct rule by the Spanish Crown resumed, intensifying local discontent amid heavy taxation, military demands, and ongoing conflicts.

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Economic Developments: Prosperity, Strains, and Maritime Dominance

Dutch Golden Age and Financial Pressures

• The Dutch Republic maintained economic dynamism, particularly in Amsterdam, Europe's financial and commercial capital, facilitated by the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and the rapidly expanding Dutch West India Company (WIC), established in 1621.

• However, sustained military campaigns strained Dutch financial resources. Rising public debt became an issue, even amid continued trade prosperity and industrial productivity, highlighting the economic tensions of war financing.

French Economic Expansion and Maritime Trade

• France, under Richelieu’s guidance, promoted economic growth and maritime expansion. The port cities of Bordeaux, Nantes, Le Havre, and La Rochelle prospered, driven by increased trade in wine, salt, textiles, and colonial products from newly established French overseas territories.

• Richelieu significantly strengthened naval power, promoting overseas commerce and colonial expansion, particularly in North America and the Caribbean.

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Religious and Intellectual Developments

Intensification of Counter-Reformation and Protestant Conflict

• The renewed war heightened religious tensions. In northern France and the Spanish Netherlands, Counter-Reformation Catholicism intensified through Jesuit-led education and missionary efforts, reinforcing orthodoxy and suppressing Protestantism.

• In the Dutch Republic, the decisive Calvinist orthodoxy following the Synod of Dort (1619) dominated, marginalizing other Protestant groups but fostering religious cohesion amid external threats.

Growth of Intellectual Inquiry and Scientific Thought

• Notable advancements occurred in scientific thought and philosophical inquiry. In France, René Descartes pursued groundbreaking philosophical work in the Netherlands, publishing influential works such as Discourse on Method (1637) (just after this era), fostering rationalist philosophy and scientific method development.

• Dutch and Flemish scholars continued important work in mathematics, optics, navigation, and early experimental science, reflecting broader European scientific advancements.

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Cultural and Artistic Developments

Baroque Cultural Flourishing

• Baroque art and architecture flourished spectacularly. In the Spanish Netherlands, Peter Paul Rubens achieved international prominence, executing large-scale commissions for courts across Europe, significantly influencing Baroque artistic expression.

• The Dutch Golden Age of painting continued to blossom, with emerging masters like Rembrandt, whose early works in this period solidified his reputation as one of Europe's foremost artists. Other notable figures included Frans Hals, known for vivid, lifelike portraiture, and landscape specialists such as Jan van Goyen.

French Cultural Patronage

• In France, Richelieu’s patronage bolstered literature, theater, and architecture. Playwrights such as Pierre Corneille began their careers, shaping French drama profoundly. Paris emerged as a vibrant cultural center, increasingly influencing European tastes and artistic standards.

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Social and Urban Developments

Urban Growth Amid Economic Prosperity

• Amsterdam, Antwerp, and Rotterdam continued to expand, driven by maritime trade and economic prosperity. Urban growth facilitated significant demographic changes, increased social mobility, and the emergence of influential urban merchant classes.

• In France, coastal cities such as Bordeaux and Nantes flourished, while Paris grew significantly as administrative centralization under Richelieu attracted nobles, officials, intellectuals, and artists.

Continued Rural Struggles and Migration

• Rural areas across northern France and southern Low Countries faced ongoing hardships from warfare, taxation, and poor harvests, prompting widespread migration into expanding urban areas or overseas colonies.

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Legacy and Historical Significance

The era 1624–1635 was crucial in shaping Atlantic West Europe’s long-term political, economic, cultural, and social trajectory:

• Politically, Richelieu’s centralizing reforms fundamentally transformed French governance, positioning France as a dominant European power. The Dutch Republic secured territorial gains but faced increasing economic pressure from sustained warfare.

• Economically, Amsterdam’s financial dominance and maritime trade success contrasted with increasing fiscal strains, foreshadowing future economic challenges.

• Religiously, the intensification of Counter-Reformation efforts and entrenched Calvinist orthodoxy further entrenched regional religious identities and divisions.

• Culturally, the extraordinary artistic productivity of the early Baroque era established lasting legacies in European cultural history, influencing artistic standards for centuries.

Thus, by 1635, Atlantic West Europe had navigated renewed conflict, economic prosperity tempered by growing strains, and remarkable cultural and intellectual innovation, setting essential foundations for the complex developments of the later seventeenth century.

Philip IV of Spain is to become famous for his patronage of his court painter Diego Velázquez.

Velázquez originates from Seville and mutual contacts had caused him to become known in 1623 to Gaspar de Guzmán, Count Duke of Olivares, Philip’s principal minister, who comes from the same region; he is summoned to Madrid by the king in 1624.

Despite some jealously from the existing court painters, Velázquez rapidly becomes a success with Philip, being retained for the rest of his career until his death, painting a celebration of the Treaty of the Pyrenees for Philip.

The king and Velázquez share common interests in horses, dogs and art, and in private are to form an easy, relaxed relationship over the years.

Velázquez is to paint at least three portraits of Olivares, his friend and original patron, producing the baroque equestrian portrait along with the standing portraits now at the Hermitage and São Paulo.

Like many contemporaries, Olivares is 'haunted' by Spain's potential decline, and sees part of the solution at least in a reform of the Spanish state.

Olivares sees Catalonia and the other provinces as paying less to the crown than they should, and does not really understand why the inhabitants should object to a fairer distribution of taxes.

He is confident in the intellectual argument for a better defended, better ordered Spain, and never seems to have shown serious doubt that his plans would succeed, or understood the growing hatred against his rule.

These plans take form first in Olivares' Unión de Armas, or 'Union of Arms' concept, put forward in 1624.

This would have involved the different elements of Philip's territories raising fixed quotas of soldiers in line with their size and population.

Despite being portrayed by Olivares as a purely military plan, it reflects Olivares' desire for a more closely unified Spain—although not, it is generally argued, a completely unified kingdom.

In August 1624, news of the loss of Salvador reached Spain, prompting Philip IV to order the assembly of a joint Hispano-Portuguese fleet led by Admiral Fadrique Álvarez de Toledo y Mendoza.

Their mission was to retake the city.

The Portuguese fleet, under Manuel de Menezes with Francisco de Almeida as second in command, consisted of twenty-two ships and about four thousand men.

On November 22, they set sail from Lisbon.

The Spanish fleet, comprising thirty-eight ships from the armadas of Castile, Biscay, Gibraltar, and Cuatro Villas, including twenty-one galleons, carried eight thousand sailors and soldiers divided into three Tercios, one Italian and two Spanish.

The fleet was commanded by maestros de campo Pedro Osorio, Juan de Orellana, and Carlos Carraciolo, Marquis of Torrecuso.

After experiencing delays due to inclement weather, the Spanish fleet departed from Cadiz on January 14.

The joint fleet arrived at Cape Verde on February 6, joining forces with the Portuguese fleet, which had previously lost a ship and one hundred and forty men near the Isle of Maio.

Following a council of war, the joint fleet set sail for Brazil five days later, led by the commander-in-chief of the joint army, Pedro Rodríguez de Sebastián, and seconded by Sargento Mayor Diego Ruiz.