China's ruling Qing dynasty begins to take an interest in the Nanyang Chinese in the latter part of the nineteenth century, and seeks to attract their loyalty and wealth to the service of the homeland.

Chinese consulates are established in Singapore, Malaya, the Dutch East Indies, and other parts of the Nanyang.

Hoo Ah Kay had been appointed Singapore's first consul in 1877.

He and his successors work diligently to strengthen the cultural ties of the Singapore Chinese to China by establishing a cultural club, a debating society, Singapore's first Chinese-language newspaper (Lot Pau), and various Chinese-language schools, in which the medium of instruction is Chinese.

One of the most important functions of the consul, however, is to raise money for flood and famine relief in China and for the general support of the Qing government.

With the upheaval in China following the Hundred Days' Reform Movement in 1898, and its suppression by the Qing conservatives, the Singapore Chinese and their pocketbooks are wooed by reformists, royalists, and revolutionaries alike.

Sun Yat-sen will found a Singapore branch of the Tongmeng Hui, the forerunner of the Guomindang (Kuomintang—Chinese Nationalist Party), in 1906.

Not until the successful Wuchang Uprising of October 10, 1911, however, will Sun receive the enthusiastic support of Singapore Chinese.

The Singapore Indian community is much smaller than the Chinese community in the late nineteenth century and less organized.

By 1880 there are only twelve thousand Indians, including Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs, and Christians, each group with its own temple, mosque, or church.

South Indians tend to be shopkeepers or laborers, particularly dockworkers, riverboatmen, and drivers of the ox carts that are the major transport for goods to and from the port area.

North Indians are usually clerks, traders, and merchants.

Both groups come to Singapore expecting to return to their homeland and are even more transient than the Chinese.

Maritime East Asia (1900–1911 CE): Rising Nationalism, Imperial Clashes, and Revolutionary Movements

Between 1900 and 1911 CE, Martitime East Asia—encompassing lower Primorsky Krai, the Korean Peninsula, the Japanese Archipelago south of northern Hokkaido, Taiwan, and southern, central, and northeastern China—is marked by heightened nationalism, significant imperial confrontations, and revolutionary upheavals. Each region navigates complex interactions of internal pressures and foreign influence, fundamentally reshaping political identities and ambitions.

China: Boxer Rebellion and Revolutionary Ferment

China confronts severe internal turmoil with the Boxer Rebellion (1899–1901), a vehement anti-foreign and anti-Christian movement initiated by the "Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists" (Boxers). This uprising, supported by Empress Dowager Cixi, seeks to expel foreign powers from China. The rebellion culminates in the siege of the international legations in Beijing, prompting a multinational military response by the Eight-Nation Alliance (Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, the United States, and Austria-Hungary), resulting in China's crushing defeat.

The subsequent Boxer Protocol (1901) imposes severe penalties, including heavy indemnities, foreign military presence, and further erosion of Chinese sovereignty. The Qing Dynasty, now gravely weakened, faces growing revolutionary sentiments epitomized by figures such as Sun Yat-sen, who advocates the overthrow of the imperial system and establishment of a republican government. Revolutionary groups, including the Tongmenghui (Revolutionary Alliance) formed in 1905, increasingly mobilize popular support, laying groundwork for imminent political transformation.

Korea: Japanese Hegemony and Loss of Sovereignty

Korea continues to grapple with foreign dominance, particularly from Japan, whose influence grows decisively following its victory in the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905). The Treaty of Portsmouth (1905), mediated by U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt, acknowledges Japan's predominant interests in Korea, further eroding Korean sovereignty. Japan solidifies control through the Eulsa Treaty (1905), making Korea a protectorate and stripping it of diplomatic independence.

Resistance movements arise, including widespread protests and guerrilla actions against Japanese domination, notably following the forced abdication of Korean Emperor Gojong in 1907. These uprisings, however, are harshly suppressed, and by 1910, Japan formally annexes Korea, integrating it fully into its empire and marking the beginning of decades of colonial rule.

Japan: Expansion, Modernization, and International Recognition

Japan achieves unprecedented global recognition following its decisive victory in the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905), marking the first time an Asian power defeats a major European nation. This victory significantly elevates Japan's international status and bolsters nationalist pride. Domestically, Japan continues aggressive industrialization and modernization, significantly expanding its military capabilities and infrastructure.

The war’s success, however, exacerbates internal tensions, as societal inequalities grow and demands for broader democratic reforms intensify. Political parties increasingly challenge the authoritarian structure dominated by the oligarchic genro, advocating greater transparency and civilian governance. Nevertheless, Japan's imperial ambitions remain central, guiding its assertive foreign policy and expansionist actions in East Asia.

Taiwan: Consolidation under Japanese Rule

Under Japanese governance, Taiwan undergoes rapid modernization and infrastructure development, marked by extensive construction of railroads, public works, and modern administrative systems. Despite sporadic resistance, notably guerrilla actions lingering from earlier uprisings, the Japanese authorities maintain control through firm and often harsh governance.

Economic and educational reforms significantly transform Taiwanese society, promoting assimilation policies aimed at incorporating Taiwan fully into the Japanese imperial structure. Nonetheless, Taiwanese identity persists, subtly fostering local resistance and laying foundations for future nationalist aspirations.

Legacy of the Era: Transformational Nationalism and Imperial Realignments

Between 1900 and 1911 CE, Maritime East Asia witnesses dramatic realignments of power, deepening nationalist fervor, and revolutionary transformations. China's internal instability and foreign subjugation fuel revolutionary movements leading toward systemic political change. Korea succumbs entirely to Japanese imperialism, losing sovereignty but sustaining a persistent national consciousness. Japan's ascendancy as an international power reshapes regional dynamics and intensifies imperial competition. Taiwan, integrated firmly into Japan's empire, experiences transformative modernization while retaining underlying nationalist sentiments. Collectively, this period significantly reshapes the region’s political landscape, setting the stage for monumental developments in the coming decades.

Maritime East Asia (1912–1923 CE): Republics, Colonial Consolidation, and Regional Ambitions

Between 1912 and 1923 CE, Maritime East Asia—covering lower Primorsky Krai, the Korean Peninsula, the Japanese Archipelago south of northern Hokkaido, Taiwan, and southern, central, and northeastern China—is characterized by the establishment of new political systems, increased colonial consolidation, and regional ambitions intensified by the aftermath of World War I. National identities further solidify as each region navigates complex interactions of internal change and external pressures.

China: Fall of Qing, Rise of the Republic, and Warlord Era

In 1912, the Qing Dynasty collapses following the success of the Xinhai Revolution, led by revolutionary figure Sun Yat-sen. This revolution results in the establishment of the Republic of China, with Sun serving briefly as provisional president before ceding power to military leader Yuan Shikai. Yuan attempts to consolidate authority through authoritarian measures, even briefly proclaiming himself emperor, triggering widespread opposition and the fragmentation of central authority.

The ensuing power vacuum leads to the chaotic Warlord Era (1916–1928), characterized by constant military conflicts among regional warlords. Despite political turmoil, this period sees important social and cultural developments, including the influential May Fourth Movement (1919), which advocates modernization, democracy, and nationalism, significantly shaping China's intellectual and political landscape.

Korea: Japanese Colonial Consolidation and Resistance Movements

Under harsh Japanese colonial rule, Korea experiences increased efforts at cultural assimilation and economic exploitation. The Japanese administration introduces industrial and infrastructural modernization primarily benefiting Japan's imperial ambitions, while suppressing Korean identity and dissent through strict policing and cultural policies.

Resistance against Japanese rule reaches a critical juncture during the March 1st Movement (1919), a nationwide peaceful protest demanding Korean independence. This demonstration is brutally suppressed, resulting in thousands of arrests and deaths, yet it significantly strengthens Korean nationalism and leads to the establishment of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea in Shanghai, becoming a focal point for Korean resistance.

Japan: Postwar Expansion, Internal Reform, and Democratic Movements

Emerging from World War I as a victor aligned with the Allies, Japan expands its influence significantly, notably through gaining German territories in the Pacific and asserting greater control in China via the controversial Twenty-One Demands (1915). This imperial expansion further solidifies Japan's international status, but generates substantial resentment, especially in China.

Internally, Japan experiences a period known as the Taishō Democracy (1912–1926), marked by a relatively liberal atmosphere, increased political participation, and the rise of parliamentary governance. However, underlying tensions remain, with powerful military and conservative factions continuing to influence political decisions significantly.

Taiwan: Accelerated Development under Japanese Administration

Taiwan sees accelerated modernization and economic development under Japanese rule, particularly through infrastructure improvements and the growth of export-oriented agriculture and industry. The Japanese administration continues its assimilation policies, fostering widespread education in the Japanese language and promoting loyalty to the Japanese empire.

Resistance to Japanese authority remains limited during this period due to strict governance, but subtle forms of local identity and dissent persist, laying foundations for future nationalist movements.

Legacy of the Era: National Identities and Regional Transformations

The years 1912 to 1923 CE significantly reshape Maritime East Asia's political, social, and cultural landscapes. China transitions from imperial rule to republicanism amidst ongoing internal strife. Korea experiences deepened colonial control alongside intensified nationalist sentiment. Japan solidifies its status as a regional power with broader international ambitions, yet faces growing internal demands for democracy. Taiwan continues its transformation under Japanese colonial administration, balancing modernization with lingering local identities. Collectively, this age of turbulent change profoundly impacts regional dynamics, setting trajectories for future conflicts and transformations.

Maritime East Asia (1924–1935 CE): Nationalist Struggles, Militarization, and Prelude to War

Between 1924 and 1935 CE, Maritime East Asia—comprising lower Primorsky Krai, the Korean Peninsula, the Japanese Archipelago south of northern Hokkaido, Taiwan, and southern, central, and northeastern China—is marked by escalating nationalist movements, deepening militarization, and intensifying regional rivalries that lay the groundwork for broader conflict. The era witnesses the decline of democratic experiments, the assertion of authoritarian and military powers, and sustained resistance against colonial oppression.

China: Nationalist Unification and Communist Ascendancy

In China, the chaotic Warlord Era gradually gives way to efforts at national reunification led by the Kuomintang (KMT) under Sun Yat-sen and, following Sun's death in 1925, Chiang Kai-shek. Chiang launches the Northern Expedition (1926–1928), successfully defeating major warlords and nominally reunifying China under the KMT government based in Nanjing.

Yet the unity proves fragile. In 1927, Chiang purges Communist elements from the KMT, precipitating a civil conflict between the KMT and the newly formed Chinese Communist Party (CCP) under leaders such as Mao Zedong. This struggle leads to the establishment of rural Communist bases, notably in Jiangxi, culminating in the historic Long March (1934–1935)—an arduous retreat that solidifies Mao’s leadership and defines the CCP's revolutionary identity.

Korea: Intensified Colonial Control and Underground Resistance

Korea endures increasingly severe Japanese rule, characterized by oppressive assimilation policies, forced labor mobilizations, and extensive surveillance. Japanese authorities suppress Korean cultural expression, enforcing Japanese language usage and compulsory Shinto shrine visits.

Nonetheless, underground nationalist activities flourish, with the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea, now based primarily in China, continuing resistance efforts. Within Korea, clandestine movements and secret societies maintain nationalist sentiment, producing literature and organizing subtle resistance efforts despite harsh Japanese crackdowns.

Japan: Militarization, Imperial Expansion, and Authoritarian Turn

The relatively liberal period known as Taishō Democracy concludes definitively with the beginning of the Shōwa era (1926–1989) under Emperor Hirohito. Japan shifts decisively toward militarism and authoritarian rule, driven by nationalist ideologies and ambitions for regional dominance. Military influence over politics intensifies significantly following economic setbacks caused by the Great Depression starting in 1929, which creates social unrest and political instability.

In 1931, Japan escalates its imperial ambitions with the Mukden Incident, a staged explosion used as pretext to invade and occupy China's northeastern provinces (Manchuria), establishing the puppet state of Manchukuo under nominal rule of the last Qing emperor, Puyi. International condemnation leads Japan to withdraw from the League of Nations in 1933, marking its diplomatic isolation and commitment to aggressive expansion.

Taiwan: Economic Integration and Cultural Suppression

Taiwan remains tightly controlled by Japan, experiencing continued economic growth driven by agricultural exports—particularly sugar and rice—and industrial expansion. The Japanese colonial government deepens infrastructural developments, such as extensive railway networks and improved port facilities, integrating Taiwan further into Japan's imperial economy.

Japanese authorities intensify assimilation policies, actively suppressing indigenous cultures and imposing Japanese identity. Taiwanese nationalism remains subdued but resilient, quietly manifesting through cultural preservation and subtle resistance. Taiwanese intellectuals abroad begin articulating clearer nationalist identities, setting the stage for future political movements.

Legacy of the Era: Seeds of Conflict and Nationalist Resilience

From 1924 to 1935 CE, Maritime East Asia moves steadily toward large-scale regional conflict. China's fragile unification sets the stage for prolonged internal strife between Nationalists and Communists. Korea suffers increasingly oppressive Japanese domination, fueling enduring resistance movements. Japan adopts a militant nationalism, forsaking democratic reforms in favor of authoritarianism and imperial expansion, setting itself on a collision course with international powers. Taiwan's integration into Japan’s empire continues, yet the roots of future nationalist awakenings quietly strengthen. Collectively, these developments set in motion the profound upheavals that will reshape the region and the world in the coming decades.