The Middle East: 57–46 BCE

The Parthian Conflict and Roman Setbacks

The era from 57 to 46 BCE marks a critical period in Roman-Parthian relations, characterized by ambitious Roman expansion attempts and significant military setbacks. In 53 BCE, the Roman general Marcus Licinius Crassus, a member of the influential First Triumvirate alongside Julius Caesar and Pompey, leads a major invasion into Mesopotamia, aiming to extend Roman dominance into Parthian territories.

Crassus's campaign ends in disaster at the Battle of Carrhae, where he and his son Publius suffer devastating defeat and death at the hands of Parthian forces under General Surena. This catastrophic Roman loss is considered the worst since the famed Battle of Cannae during the Punic Wars, dramatically altering the political dynamics within Rome itself.

Crassus’s defeat directly contributes to the collapse of the First Triumvirate, exacerbating tensions that eventually ignite the civil wars between Julius Caesar and Pompey. Exploiting Roman vulnerability, the Parthians launch a series of raids into Syria the following year (52 BCE), capitalizing on the confusion and diminished Roman military presence.

In 51 BCE, the Parthians escalate their aggression with a major invasion of Syria, but this advance is effectively halted when Roman forces ambush and decisively defeat them near Antigonea. The Romans, rallying after the humiliation at Carrhae, manage to drive back the Parthians and temporarily secure the volatile frontier.

Thus, this era (57–46 BCE) encapsulates a pivotal moment of Roman vulnerability in the Near East, demonstrating both the limits of Roman power against the formidable Parthian Empire and setting the stage for prolonged future confrontations between these two great ancient powers.

The Great Roman Civil War (49–45 BCE), also known as Caesar's Civil War, one of the last politico-military conflicts in the Roman Republic before the establishment of the Roman Empire, begins as a series of political and military confrontations between Julius Caesar, his political supporters (broadly known as Populares), and his legions, against the Optimates (or Boni), the politically conservative and socially traditionalist faction of the Roman Senate, who are supported by Pompey and his legions.

Caesar is appointed dictator in Rome, with Mark Antony as his Master of the Horse; Caesar presides over his own election to a second consulate (with Publius Servilius Vatia as his colleague), then, after eleven days, resigns this dictatorate.

He pursues Pompey to Alexandria, where Pompey is murdered by a former Roman officer serving in the court of King Ptolemy XIII.

Caesar then becomes involved with the Alexandrine civil war between Ptolemy and his sister, wife, and co-regent queen, the Pharaoh Cleopatra VII.

Caesar sides with Cleopatra, perhaps as a result of Ptolemy's role in Pompey's murder; he is reported to have wept at the sight of Pompey's head, which is offered to him by Ptolemy's chamberlain Pothinus as a gift.

In any event, Caesar withstands the Siege of Alexandria, later defeating the Ptolemaic forces in 47 BCE in the Battle of the Nile and installing Cleopatra as ruler.

Caesar and Cleopatra never marry, as Roman Law only recognizes marriages between two Roman citizens, but he continues his relationship with Cleopatra throughout his last marriage, which lasts fourteen years—in Roman eyes, this does not constitute adultery—and may have fathered a son called Caesarion.

Cleopatra visits Rome on more than one occasion, residing in Caesar's villa just outside Rome across the Tiber.

Caesar had again been appointed Dictator late in 48 BCE, with a term of one year.

After spending the first months of 47 BCE in Egypt, Caesar crosses to Asia, where he annihilates King Pharnaces II of Pontus in the Battle of Zela; his victory is so swift and complete that he mocks Pompey's previous victories over such poor enemies.

He thence proceeds to Africa to deal with the remnants of Pompey's senatorial supporters.

He quickly gains a significant victory at Thapsus in 46 BCE over the forces of Metellus Scipio (who dies in the battle) and Cato the Younger (who commits suicide).

After this victory, Caesar is appointed Dictator for ten years.

Mithridates III invades the Parthian kingdom from Syria, but after reigning briefly in 55 BCE is besieged by Surena, general of Orodes II, in Seleucia on the Tigris.

Surena is instrumental in the reinstatement of Orodes upon the Arsacid throne.

The Roman triumvir Marcus Licinius Crassus, replacing Gabinius as governor of Syria in 54, attempts to gain military glory to balance that of his partners, Pompey and Caesar, by embarking on an unwarranted invasion of Parthia, to the east.

With seven legions (about forty-four thousand men), but insufficient cavalry, Crassus invades Mesopotamia, which is defended by a Parthian noble of the Suren family (whose personal name is not known).

Mithridates III flees Seleucia for Babylon, and after a long siege is taken prisoner and killed in 54 BCE by Orodes II.

Crassus has meanwhile begun his attempt to conquer the east: the Romans in 53 BCE advance on the western Arsacid vassalaries.

Orodes II in response sends his cavalry units under Surenas to combat them.

Gaius Cassius Longinus' first office is as quaestor under Crassus in 53 BCE, an office in which he proves himself to have a capable military mind.

He has traveled with Crassus to the province of Syria, and attempts to dissuade him from attacking the Parthians, suggesting that they secure a base at the Euphrates.

Ignoring Cassius, Crassu leads the army into the Battle of Carrhae, during which he also ignores Cassius' plans for strengthening the Roman line.

The result is the most famous Roman rout since the Second Punic War.

Crassus, learning that Surenas (i.e., “the Suren”) is in the desert east of the Euphrates River, leaves the cover of the river and strikes out toward Carrhae.

(Some later historians will condemn this move as rash, but, because Seleucia on the Tigris is Crassus' ultimate objective, he must at some time cross open country.)

Suddenly the Parthians are upon him, with a force of about a thousand armored knights and nearly ten thousand horse archers.

His troops, though superior in numbers, are neither acclimatized nor adapted to desert warfare.

While his son Publius launches an unsuccessful covering attack with his cavalry, the main Roman forces form a square against the encircling Parthians and attempt unsuccessfully to cover both body and head with their shields against the showers of Parthian arrows.

Surenas' provision of a corps of one thousand Arabian camels, one for every ten men, enable the Parthians to retire by sections and replenish their quivers.

Crassus, lacking provisions, is compelled by his demoralized men to negotiate but is cut down by the Parthians in the attempt.

About ten thousand Romans escape, but the rest of Crassus' men are either captured or killed.

Cassius manages to save the remnants of the army with the help of Crassus' legate, Gaius Octavius.

The army in turn tries to make Cassius its new commander, but he refuses out of loyalty to Crassus.

Crassus is killed by Parthian forces after treacherous guides lead him astray during the retreat from Carrhae, but Cassius manages to escape with five hundred and nine cavalry and meet up with the surviving legionaries.

The Parthians have dealt a stunning blow to Roman prestige in the East, and the death of Crassus is to have serious repercussions on Roman political life.

Although this feat of arms takes a severe toll on the Roman troops (Plutarch speaks of twenty thousand dead and ten thousand prisoners), and "produced a mighty echo amongst the peoples of the East," it did not cause "any decisive shift in the balance of power," that is, the Arsacid victory did not gain them territory.

For Surena, "it soon cost him his life. Probably fearing that he would constitute a threat to himself, King Orodes II had him executed."

Orodes himself invades Armenia and forces King Artavasdes, the son of Tigranes the Great, to abandon the Romans.

By the victory of Carrhae the countries east of the Euphrates are secured to the Parthians.

Plutarch relates that Orodes understood Greek very well.

After the death of Crassus, the Bacchae of Euripides is presented at Artavasdes' court, with the head of Crassus himself allegedly being used as an accessory for a scene actually including a severed head, on the order of the king.

The Parthians had invaded Syria in 53 BCE, but with little success, for Surena, whose achievements had made him too dangerous, is killed by Orodes.

For the two years following the disaster at Carrhae, Cassius has governed the province of Syria as proquaestor, quelling an uprising in Judea in 52, and defending the border against Parthian incursions until the new proconsul arrives.