Hungarian public opinion is split over the country's relations with Austria.

Some Hungarians hold out hope for full separation from Austria; others want an accommodation with the Habsburgs, provided that they respect Hungary's constitution and laws.

Ferenc Deák becomes the main advocate for accommodation.

Deák upholds the legality of the April Laws and argues that their amendment requires the Hungarian Diet's consent.

He also holds that the dethronement of the Habsburgs is invalid.

As long as Austria rules absolutely, Deák argues, Hungarians should do no more than passively resist illegal demands.

The first crack in Franz Joseph's neo-absolutist rule develops in 1859, when the forces of Sardinia and France defeat Austria at Solferino.

The defeat persuades Franz Joseph that national and social opposition to his government is too strong to be managed by decree from Vienna.

Gradually he recognizes the necessity of concessions toward Hungary, and Austria and Hungary thus move toward a compromise.

The active campaign for union of Walachia and Moldavia begins in 1856.

The movement has the support of France, because many Romanian revolutionaries had taken refuge there after 1848 and have lobbied Napoleon III to press for unification; Austria, Britain, and the Ottomans, however, oppose the unification effort, while Russia opts to let the Romanians decide.

In 1857 the Porte manipulates an election of delegates to special assemblies charged with discussing unification; the few voters casting ballots elect representatives opposing union.

An international crisis follows, and Napoleon III, with Russian and British support, finally pressures the Ottomans to nullify the results and hold new, untainted elections, which return a huge majority of delegates in favor of unification.

These delegates immediately call for autonomy, a constitutional government, and a foreign prince to rule the unified principalities.

Despite the election results, an international conference in Paris in 1858 reaffirms separation of Walachia and Moldavia under Ottoman sovereignty, but it allows for a common coinage and uniform laws and titles the two states the "United Principalities."

The Romanians themselves overcome the imposed separation in 1859 when the separate assemblies at Bucharest and Iasi unanimously elect the same man, Alexandru loan Cuza, governor of both principalities.

The leading European nations, distracted by war in Italy, yield to a fait accompli and accept unification, and Cuza (1859-66) becomes prince.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (1852–1863 CE): Nationalism, Unification, and Cultural Renewal

The era from 1852 to 1863 CE is marked by transformative political and cultural shifts across Mediterranean Southwest Europe, encompassing the Italian Peninsula, southern and eastern Spain, southern Portugal, Andorra, the Balearic Islands, Sicily, Sardinia, and Malta. Dominated by Italy’s struggle for unification, this period also witnesses significant developments in regional nationalism, liberal reforms, and cultural flourishing.

Italian Unification: Second War of Independence and Garibaldi's Campaign

In 1859, the Kingdom of Sardinia, guided by the diplomatic and political acumen of Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, launches the Second Italian War of Independence against Austrian dominance. With decisive French military support, the campaign results in the crucial liberation of Lombardy, energizing nationalist movements across the peninsula.

In the south, revolutionary leader Giuseppe Garibaldi embarks on his legendary Expedition of the Thousand (1860–1861), successfully overthrowing Bourbon rule in Naples and Sicily. A defining moment occurs on October 26, 1860, at Teano, where Garibaldi meets Victor Emmanuel II, King of Sardinia. Prioritizing national unity, Garibaldi relinquishes republican ideals to support a united constitutional monarchy, hailing Victor Emmanuel as King of Italy.

On March 17, 1861, the Kingdom of Italy is officially proclaimed, uniting northern, central, and southern regions under the House of Savoy. Soon thereafter, the capital moves from Turin to Florence, signifying Italy’s evolving political identity.

Liberalism and Regionalism in Spain and Portugal

During this period, liberalism continues to reshape Spain, although internal divisions persist between Moderate and Progressive factions. The reign of Queen Isabella II is characterized by political instability, frequent government turnovers, and deepening societal divides. In southern and eastern Spain, regionalist sentiments endure, notably in Catalonia and Valencia, setting the stage for future political dynamics.

In Portugal, liberal reforms stabilize following the tumultuous Civil War earlier in the century, but economic challenges and regional disparities, especially in southern provinces like Algarve, remain prominent concerns, fueling ongoing demands for economic modernization and administrative reform.

Cultural Renaissance and Romanticism

Culturally, this era represents a peak of Romantic artistic expression, with Giuseppe Verdi’s operatic masterpieces serving as powerful reflections of Italian nationalism and cultural identity. Works such as Rigoletto (1851), Il Trovatore(1853), and La Traviata (1853) resonate widely, symbolizing the emotional depth and patriotic fervor associated with the Risorgimento.

Simultaneously, Romanticism profoundly influences artistic and literary expression in Spain, Portugal, and the wider Mediterranean region, capturing the spirit of national pride, historical reflection, and cultural renewal.

Andorra and Malta: Stability Amidst Change

Andorra maintains its unique political status as a co-principality, experiencing relative stability amidst surrounding transformations. Its economy benefits modestly from improved relations with neighboring Spain and France. In Malta, a British colony since 1814, strategic naval importance grows, fostering economic stability and infrastructure development despite ongoing colonial tensions.

Conclusion: An Era of Transformation

Between 1852 and 1863 CE, Mediterranean Southwest Europe undergoes dramatic transformations driven by nationalism, liberalism, and cultural revival. The unification of Italy emerges as the era’s defining event, reshaping regional dynamics, while Spain, Portugal, Andorra, and Malta each navigate their unique paths through political reform, cultural expression, and evolving national identities.

The Kingdom of Sardinia again attacks the Austrian Empire in the Second Italian War of Independence of 1859, with the aid of France, resulting in the liberation of Lombardy.

The conte de Cavour enlists Napoleon III in a joint alliance to expel Austria from northern Italy.

The price for the French emperor's help is the cession of Savoy and Nice to France and the outlawing of the Mazzinian movement; wrongly, Napoleon III holds Mazzini's followers responsible for Orsini's attempt on his life.

A Franco-Piedmontese alliance is sealed in January 1859.

With Napoleon's approval, Victor Emmanuel II makes a speech from his throne in which he declares himself ready to hear il grido di dolore against Austrian oppression that arises from every part of Italy.

Giuseppe Mazzini, together with one hundred and fifty-one republicans, signs a manifesto on February 21, 1859, against the alliance between Piedmont and the King of France.

The army of the Kingdom of Sardinia mobilizes against Austria on March 9, 1859, beginning the crisis that will lead to the Austro-Sardinian War, or Second War of Italian Independence

Edmond Modeste Lescarbault, a French amateur astronomer, claims to have noticed a planet closer to the Sun than Mercury (later named Vulcan) on March 26, 1859.

French mathematician Urbain Le Verrier, attempting to explain peculiarities of Mercury's orbit,had hypothesized that they are the result of another planet, which he had named "Vulcan".

A number of reputable investigators have become involved in the search for Vulcan, and despite occasional claimed observations, no such planet will ever be confirm

Peculiarities in Mercury's orbit have now been explained by Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity.

The Austrian military leadership and its sympathizers at court meanwhile urge Francis Joseph to declare war on Piedmont.

On April 23, an insulting and unacceptable ultimatum demands the demobilization of Piedmontese troops.

Piedmont rejects the Austrian ultimatum.

Austria declares war three days later.

As Cavour had hoped and planned, France honors its alliance with Piedmont.