Constantine has threatened to invade Italy but…

Yao Xing himself launches an attack on Liu Bobo in 409, but when he reaches Ercheng (in modern Yan'an, Shaanxi), he is nearly trapped by Liu Bobo, and escapes only after major casualties.

This defeat forces Yao Xing to cancel a mission, commanded by his general Yao Qiang, to try to save Southern Yan from being destroyed by Jin.

(Without Later Qin aid, Southern Yan will fall in 410.)

Tuoba Si was born in 392 after his father Tuoba Gui had founded Northern Wei in 386 but before he had conquered most of rival Later Yan's territory and claimed an imperial title in 399.

His mother was Tuoba Gui's favorite consort, Consort Liu, the daughter of the Xiongnu chief Liu Toujuan.

He was born at the capital Yunzhong (in modern Hohhot, Inner Mongolia.)

Heis Tuoba Gui's oldest son, and his father was said to be so pleased by this late arrival of a son that he declared a general pardon.

(It should be noted that based on Northern Wei's official history, Tuoba Gui would only be twenty-one at this point; this might be further evidence corroborating the alternative version of his life history.)

As Tuoba Si grew, he was said to be a wise and kind young man, whose actions were all in accordance with proper protocol.

In contrast, his oldest younger brother Tuoba Shao was a frivolous and violent young man, and often received punishment from Emperor Daowu.

Tuoba Si tried to correct his brother's behavior by rebukes, but this made Tuoba Shao angry at him.

In 403, Tuoba Gui, by this point Emperor Daowu, created him the Prince of Qi.

In 409, Emperor Daowu is intent on creating Tuoba Si crown prince, but based on the Tuoba tradition that when an heir is decided upon, his mother must be put to death, the emperor forces Consort Liu to commit suicide.

Either before or after he does so, he summons Tuoba Si to explain to him that this tradition is also in accordance with Emperor Wu of Han's rationale to put to death his favorite concubine, Consort Zhao (the mother of Emperor Zhao of Han), to avoid overly great maternal influence on a young emperor.

After Tuoba Si leaves his father's presence, because of the affection that he has for his mother, he mourns greatly.

Hearing this, Emperor Daowu summons him back to the palace—and, because Emperor Daowu, in his late reign, often displays great paranoid and violent tendencies, the new crown prince's attendants suggest that he not go to the palace but hide in the country.

Tuoba Si agrees and flees the capital, Pingcheng, where Emperor Daowu had moved the capital in 398.

Meanwhile, Emperor Daowu, because of the crimes of Tuoba Shaos, had imprisoned Tuoba Shao's mother Consort Helan and planned to execute him.

Consort Helan sends her son a message, asking him to save her.

In response, Tuoba Shao assassinates Emperor Daowu, then tries to take over as emperor, attempting to seize control of the troops.

Tuoba Si, upon hearing this news, returns to Pingcheng but hides himself, while trying to gather supporters gradually.

Tuoba Shao tries to seek him out in order to to kill him, but the imperial guards gradually shift to Tuoba Si's side, and the imperial guards arrest Tuoba Shao and present him to Tuoba Si.

Tuoba Si executes Tuoba Shao, Consort Helan, and Tuoba Shao's associates.

He then takes the throne as Emperor Mingyuan.

Murong Chao holds the traditional imperial gathering on lunar new year 409.

Lamenting the lack of imperial musicians, he proposes an attack on Jin to capture people to be trained as musicians, despite the opposition from Han Zhuo (Han Fan's brother).

A month later, Murong Chao sends the generals Murong Xingzong, Hugu Ti, and Gongsun Gui (Gongsun Wulou's brother) to attack Jin, capturing Suyu (in modern Suqian, Jiangsu) and twenty-five hundred men and women, who are given to the music director to be taught music.

Encouraged by the success, Murong Chao carries out more raids against Jin.

The Jin general Liu Yu, at this time the leader of the Jin government, proposes in April 409 that a major attack be launched against Southern Yan, and even though he faces opposition, he starts the campaign regardless.

Gongsun Wulou and Murong Zhen propose that Southern Yan armies defend Daxian Mountain (in modern Weifang, Shandong) and not allow Jin forces to pass.

Murong Chao, overly confident, instead decides to let Jin forces pass Daxian, and then engage them in the plains north of Daxian.

He further rejects suggestions that the crops be burned to prevent them from being used as food supply by Jin forces.

When Murong Zhen comments to Han Zhuo that this will lead to the empire's destruction, Murong Chao throws Murong Zhen into prison.

Liu Yu is very pleased that Murong Chao does not defend Daxian, as he had feared he would.

The Jin and Southern Yan forces engage near Linqu (also in Weifang), while Murong Chao himself waits in the city of Linqu.

Jin general Hu Fan makes a surprise attack on Linqu, capturing it and forcing Murong Chao to flee.

Imperial defenses have deteriorated to such an extent in 409 that Honorius notifies the cities of Britain that they cannot rely on Rome for reinforcements against tribal incursions.

Liu Yu, with Murong Chao having fled, engages the main Southern Yan forces and defeats them, and Murong Chao flees back to Guanggu.

Liu Yu follows and quickly captured the outer part of the city, putting the inner city under siege.

Murong Chao releases Murong Zhen and requests his assistance in defending the city, but when Murong Zhen suggests that he pitch one final battle rather than just defending Guanggu, he balks, and he instead sends Han Fan to Later Qin to request emergency assistance.

Initially, Yao Xing is willing to provide assistance with an army commanded by the general Yao Qiang, but after he himself suffers a defeat at the hand of the rebel general Liu Bobo (the emperor of Xia), he withdraws Yao Qiang's troops.

Han Fan surrenders to Liu Yu, and the Guanggu garrison becomes even more desperate.

A number of officials suggest to Murong Chao that he surrender to Jin, but he refuses and executes anyone who suggests such.

Olympius falls in 409 to further intrigue, having his ears cut off before he is beaten to death.

Alaric tries again to negotiate with Honorius, but his demands (now even more moderate, only frontier land and food) are inflated by the messenger and Honorius responds with insults, which are reported verbatim to Alaric.

He breaks off negotiations and the standoff continues.

As a byproduct of the intrigue within the Imperial court, the general Sarus has abandoned the western army followed by his men; this leaves the emperor Honorius in Ravenna without any significant military power, and also facing the problem of a Gothic army under Alaric roaming unchecked in Etruria.

Therefore, when Constantine's envoys arrived to parley at Ravenna, the fearful Honorius had eagerly recognized Constantine as co-emperor, and the two are joint consuls for the year 409, the high-water mark of Constantine's success.

The tribes that had overrun the Rhine defenses in 406 and spent the intervening years burning and plundering their way through Gaul, have reached the Pyrenees, where, led by king Gunderic, they break through Constantine's garrisons and enter Hispania in September 409.

While Constantine prepares to send his son Constans back to deal with this crisis, word comes that his general Gerontius has rebelled, raising his own man as co-emperor.

The remaining forces in Spain, further reduced by the removal of soldiers to fight in the civil war that follows the attempt by Constantine to seize power from Honorius, are unable to provide much resistance to the Vandals, Alans, Suevi, and Buri, who sweep across the Pyrenees in late 409.

Constantine's magister militum, Gerontius, is able to restore control over the situation in Spain, obtaining for the invading Vandals, Alans, and Suebi imperial permission to settle there, but now revolts against Constantine.

Constantine's control of Britain and Spain is thus lost.

Alaric's primary goal throughout his career has not been to undermine the Empire, but to secure for himself a regular and recognized position within the Empire's borders.

His demands are certainly grand: the concession of a block of territory two hundred miles long by one hundred and fifty wide between the Danube and the Gulf of Venice (to be held probably on some terms of nominal dependence on the Empire) and the title of commander-in-chief of the imperial army.

Immense as his terms are, the Emperor would have been well advised to grant them.

Honorius, however, refuses to see beyond his own safety, guaranteed by the dikes and marshes of Ravenna.

As all attempts to conduct a satisfactory negotiation with this emperor fail, Alaric seizes Rome's port city of Ostia in 409, blockading Rome and bringing the inhabitants close to starvation.