The Habsburgs had in 1591 invaded Transylvania under George Basta, who persecutes Protestants and expropriates estates illegally until Istvan Bocskay, a former Habsburg supporter, musters an army that expels Basta's forces in 1604-05.

In 1606 Bocskay concludes the Peace of Vienna with the Habsburgs and the Peace of Zsitvatorok with the Turks.

The treaties secure his position as prince of Transylvania, guarantee rights for Royal Hungary's Protestants, broaden Transylvania's independence, and free the emperor of his obligation to pay tribute to the Ottomans.

After Bocskay's death, the Ottomans compel the Transylvanians to accept Gabor Bethlen as prince.

Transylvania prospers under Bethlen's enlightened despotism.

He stimulates agriculture, trade, and industry; sinks new mines; sends students to Protestant universities abroad; and prohibits landlords from barring children of serfs from an education.

Unfortunately, when Bethlen dies in 1629, the Transylvanian Diet abolishes most of his reforms.

After a short succession struggle, Gyorgy Rakoczi I (1648-60) becomes prince.

Under Rakoczi, Transylvania fights with the Protestants in the Thirty Years' War (1618-48) and is mentioned as a sovereign state in the Peace of Westphalia.

Transylvania's golden age ends after Gyorgy Rakoczi II (1648-60) launches an attack on Poland without the prior approval of the Ottomans or Transylvania's Diet.

The campaign is a disaster, and the Turks use the opportunity to rout Rakoczi's army and take control of Transylvania.