The people who will later be named Iberians (or dwellers along the Rio Ebro) by the Greeks, migrate to Spain in the third millennium BCE.

The origin of the Iberians is not certain, but archaeological evidence of their metallurgical and agricultural skills supports a theory that they came from the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea.

The Iberians live in small, tightly knit, sedentary tribal groups that are geographically isolated from one another.

Each group develops distinct regional and political identities, and intertribal warfare is endemic.

Other peoples of Mediterranean origin also settle in the peninsula during the same period and, together with the Iberians, mix with the diverse inhabitants.

The Iberians share in the Bronze Age revival (1900 to 1600 BCE) common throughout the Mediterranean basin.

In the east and the south of the Iberian Peninsula, a system of city-states is established, possibly through the amalgamation of tribal units into urban settlements.

Their governments follow  the older tribal pattern, and they are despotically governed by warrior and priestly castes.

A sophisticated urban society emerges with an economy based on gold and silver exports and on trade in tin and copper (which are plentiful in Spain) for bronze.

Phoenicians, and later, Greeks, and Carthaginians, will compete with the Iberians for control of Spain's coastline and the resources of the interior.

The cultures of Castelluccio (Ancient Bronze Age) and of Thapsos (Middle Bronze Age) are among the most important cultural expressions born in Sicily during the Bronze Age.

Both originate in the southeastern part of the island.

In these cultures, in particular in the Castelluccio phase, there are obvious influences from the Aegean Sea, where the Helladic civilization is flourishing.

The Bell Beaker culture, belonging to a western (Iberian-Sardinian) type, is known from sites on the northwestern and southwestern coasts of Sicily, previously occupied by the Conca d'Oro culture (late copper age in the Palermo region), while in the late Bronze Age there are signs in northeastern Sicily of cultural osmosis with the people of the peninsula that led to the appearance of Proto-Villanovan culture at Milazzo, perhaps linked to the arrival of Sicels.

The nearby Aeolian Islands host the flourishing of the Capo Graziano (on Filicudi) and Milazzo cultures in the Bronze Age, and subsequently that of occupation by Ausones (divided into two phases, I and II).

Merchants from Tyre may have established an outpost at Cádiz, "the walled enclosure," as early as 1100 BCE as the westernmost link in what will become a chain of settlements lining the peninsula's southern coast.

If the accepted date of its founding is accurate, Cádiz is the oldest city in Western Europe, and it is even older than Carthage in North Africa.

It is the most significant of the Phoenician colonies.

From Cadiz, Phoenician seamen will explore the west coast of Africa as far as Senegal, and they will reputedly venture far out on the Atlantic.

Atlantic Southwest Europe (2637 – 910 BCE): River Valleys and Inland Atlantic Gateways

Geographic and Environmental Context

Atlantic Southwest Europe—including northern Spain and central to northern Portugal (with Lisbon and the surrounding Tagus Valley)—was characterized by a temperate Atlantic climate, rugged uplands, and fertile river basins. The Tagus, Douro, and Minho rivers carved productive valleys and served as natural corridors from the interior to the coast. The region’s inland plateaus and foothills of the Cantabrian Mountains contrasted with lowland agricultural zones, while the Atlantic coast provided sheltered estuaries and rich fishing grounds.

Subsistence and Settlement

By the mid–third millennium BCE, farming communities cultivated wheat, barley, and legumes, along with orchard crops such as olives and grapes in favorable microclimates. Herding of cattle, sheep, and goats complemented agriculture, and pigs were kept in lowland forests. Coastal and riverine settlements exploited fish, shellfish, and waterfowl, while inland hunting targeted deer, wild boar, and small game. Settlements ranged from hilltop fortified sites to open villages in fertile valleys.

Technological and Cultural Developments

Polished stone axes and adzes remained in use alongside the adoption of copper and early bronze for tools, weapons, and ornaments. Pottery included both undecorated utilitarian forms and vessels with incised geometric designs, reflecting local styles and interaction with broader Atlantic cultural zones. In some areas, megalithic tombs and stone circles continued in use, often re-purposed or rebuilt during the Bronze Age.

Maritime and Overland Networks

While not a center for long-distance seafaring at this stage, the Atlantic coast supported coastal trade and movement between estuaries. Overland routes linked the Douro and Tagus valleys to the Meseta and further to the interior of Iberia, moving salt, livestock, hides, and metal ores. Exchange connections extended northward into Atlantic West Europe and southward toward Mediterranean-linked networks.

Cultural and Symbolic Expressions

Burial traditions included both collective megalithic tombs and individual barrows, often accompanied by metal daggers, beads, and decorated pottery. Carved stelae in some areas depicted stylized weapons or human figures. The continued maintenance of megalithic monuments suggests the persistence of ancestral veneration and ceremonial gathering traditions.

Environmental Adaptation and Resilience

Communities adapted to Atlantic rainfall patterns through crop diversification and mixed farming, balancing grain production with livestock husbandry. Settlement placement reflected awareness of flooding risks in river valleys and the advantages of defensible upland locations. Access to both inland and coastal resources reduced vulnerability to localized shortages.

Transition to the Early First Millennium BCE

By 910 BCE, Atlantic Southwest Europe was a stable agricultural and pastoral landscape integrated into inland and coastal trade systems. The combination of fertile valleys, mineral resources, and strategic location along Atlantic cultural routes positioned it for increasing connectivity in the Late Bronze Age.

The Basques, an ethnically distinct group inhabiting the western Pyrenees, predate the arrival of the Iberians in the region.

Their pre-Indo-European language, Euskara, is a linguistic isolate, with no known links to any other language. Attempts to connect it to pre-Latin Iberian remain unconvincing.

The Romans refer to them as Vascones, a name that later evolves into Basque.

 

By 2000 BCE, toward the end of the Neolithic period, distinct cultural regions begin to emerge among the Stone Age inhabitants of the Iberian Peninsula. One of these is the western Megalithic culture, which leaves behind an impressive legacy of megalithic necropolises, particularly in present-day Portugal. The most notable sites include Palmela, Alcalar, Reguengos, and Monsaraz.

The Paleolithic and Neolithic periods are followed by the Bronze Age and Iron Age, likely beginning between 1500 and 1000 BCE. During this time, the Iberian Peninsula sees waves of colonization and cultural influences from various peoples.

Among the earliest known groups are the Ligures, about whom little is known. Another major group is the Iberians (Iberos), believed to have migrated from North Africa. The Iberians are a sedentary society, practicing agriculture with primitive plows, using wheeled carts, developing writing systems, and making ritual offerings to the dead.

By the 12th century BCE, the Phoenicians arrive on the western coast of the Iberian Peninsula in search of metals. They establish trading posts at Cadiz, Málaga, and Seville, facilitating commerce with inland communities. They export silver, copper, and tin while introducing eastern trade goods, significantly shaping the region’s economic and cultural landscape.

 

Northwest Europe (2637 – 910 BCE): Atlantic Isles and Northern Seaways

Geographic and Environmental Context

Northwest Europe—including Iceland, Ireland, the United Kingdom, western Norway, and western Denmark—was shaped by rugged coasts, high rainfall, and a cool maritime climate moderated by the North Atlantic Drift. The coastline featured deep fjords, rocky headlands, and sheltered bays, while inland landscapes ranged from mountain moors and upland pastures to fertile river valleys and lowland plains. Islands such as the Hebrides, Orkney, and Shetland were strategically located along maritime routes.

Subsistence and Settlement

By the mid–third millennium BCE, farming communities cultivated barley, emmer wheat, and pulses, often in small fields cleared from woodland. Cattle, sheep, and goats were herded in both lowlands and uplands, with transhumance practiced to maximize grazing. Coastal populations relied heavily on fishing, shellfish gathering, and seasonal harvests of seabirds and marine mammals. Inland hunting targeted red deer, wild boar, and smaller game. Settlements included timber roundhouses, stone-built structures in treeless zones, and temporary upland shelters.

Technological and Cultural Developments

Stone tool use continued alongside the adoption of copper and bronze for weapons, tools, and ornaments. Monumental architecture remained significant, with stone circles, henges, and chambered cairns serving as ceremonial centers. Pottery traditions varied from plain utilitarian wares to decorated beakers and urns, reflecting participation in the Beaker culture and regional identities. In Norway and Denmark, woodworking skills were advanced, producing plank-built boats and decorated wooden items.

Maritime and Overland Networks

Northwest Europe was deeply embedded in early Atlantic exchange systems. Obsidian, metal ores, jet, and amber moved along sea routes linking the British Isles, Scandinavia, and Atlantic continental Europe. Coastal and riverine transport allowed the movement of grain, livestock, and prestige goods. Fishing and whaling provided surplus for trade, and boat technology—including sewn-plank and logboats—facilitated open-water travel.

Cultural and Symbolic Expressions

Burials ranged from megalithic tombs to individual barrows and cists, often furnished with bronze daggers, beads, and decorated pottery. Rock carvings in Scandinavia depicted ships, warriors, animals, and solar symbols, suggesting a shared maritime cosmology. In the British Isles, ceremonial complexes such as Stonehenge reached their later phases, combining astronomical alignments with social gathering functions.

Environmental Adaptation and Resilience

Communities diversified subsistence by combining farming, herding, fishing, and foraging, reducing vulnerability to climate variability. Upland grazing, lowland crop cultivation, and exploitation of coastal resources ensured year-round food supply. In exposed island and coastal areas, settlement placement considered wind shelter and access to fresh water.

Transition to the Early First Millennium BCE

By 910 BCE, Northwest Europe was a mature agricultural and maritime cultural zone, well integrated into long-distance exchange networks across the Atlantic façade. Its enduring traditions of monument building, seafaring, and mixed farming set the stage for further cultural and technological development in the Late Bronze Age.

Northwest Europe (2205–2062 BCE): Expanding Bronze Age Networks and Social Complexity

Consolidation of Bronze Age Societies

Between 2205 and 2062 BCE, communities across Northwest Europe—including the British Isles, western parts of Denmark and Norway, the Channel Islands, Orkney, and Shetland—further consolidated their Bronze Age identities. Bronze metallurgy became firmly integrated into regional economies, promoting technological advancement, expanded trade networks, and increased specialization in crafts and labor.

Societal Organization and Stratification

Social structures during this era continued to evolve, becoming notably stratified. Elites reinforced their social status through possession and display of bronze weapons, finely crafted ornaments, and specialized pottery. Prominent individuals were often interred in barrow burials, increasingly accompanied by elaborate grave goods, signaling a clear social hierarchy and distinct leadership roles within communities.

Developments at Stonehenge and Associated Monuments

In Britain, monumental complexes remained pivotal to cultural and ritual life. The ceremonial landscape surrounding Stonehenge expanded, with increasing numbers of burial mounds signifying the continued ritual importance of this area. Nearby sites such as Woodhenge maintained ceremonial significance, further illustrating complex social and religious practices of the age.

Flint Mining and Craft Specialization

Significant flint mining operations continued during this era, particularly at sites like Grimes Graves in Norfolk, England. Flourishing in the late third millennium BCE, Grimes Graves represented one of Britain's largest Neolithic flint mines. Miners utilized red deer antler picks, flint axes, and wedges to extract flint, sinking approximately five hundred shafts, some reaching depths of thirteen meters. Side galleries from these shafts allowed for extensive mining activities, and miners used primitive chalk lamps and torches for illumination. Flint and other stone axes from regions such as Langdale and Penmaenmawr in North Wales remained in high demand for forest clearing, agriculture, and settlement expansion.

Regional Centers in Ireland

In Ireland, the monumental complexes of the Boyne River Valley, including Newgrange, Knowth, and Dowth, continued to function as important ceremonial and ritual centers. Although major construction activities had largely ceased, these sites remained focal points for communal rituals and gatherings, maintaining social cohesion and reinforcing communal identity.

Shifts in Orkney and Shetland

Communities in the Orkney Islands continued to focus on ceremonial centers like the Ring of Brodgar and the Stones of Stenness. These sites remained important loci of communal activity, though their use began to shift away from the monumental construction that characterized earlier periods. Similarly, the Shetland Islands integrated broader Bronze Age cultural influences through trade, adopting new technologies and practices despite their geographic remoteness.

Agricultural Intensification and Settlement Expansion

Agricultural practices across Northwest Europe grew increasingly advanced, supported by bronze implements like plows, axes, and sickles. Enhanced agricultural productivity led to expanding settlements, allowing for larger populations and the development of specialized communities, particularly in fertile regions such as western Denmark and southern Britain.

Expansion of Maritime Trade

Maritime networks played a crucial role in the period, connecting coastal communities from Norway and Denmark to the British Isles. These networks facilitated the exchange of valuable commodities—including bronze artifacts, pottery, textiles, and amber—reinforcing cultural interactions and economic interdependencies throughout the region.

Continued Isolation: Iceland and the Faroe Islands

Throughout this period, Iceland and the Faroe Islands remained uninhabited due to their isolated location and challenging environmental conditions. Geological activities in Iceland, particularly volcanic eruptions, continued to provide useful chronological markers for archaeological dating in the broader Northwest European region.

Legacy of the Age

By 2062 BCE, Northwest European societies had firmly established complex Bronze Age communities characterized by sophisticated metallurgy, enhanced agricultural systems, well-developed trade networks, and pronounced social stratification. These advancements provided robust foundations that would support subsequent cultural and technological progress into the Middle Bronze Age.

The Capsian culture had begun influencing the Ibero-Maurusian culture between about 9000 and 5000 BCE, and after about 3000 BCE the remains of just one human type can be found throughout northwestern Africa.

Neolithic civilization (marked by animal domestication and subsistence agriculture) develops in the Saharan and Mediterranean Maghreb between 6000 and 2000 BCE.

This type of economy, so richly depicted in the Tassili-n-Ajjer cave paintings, will predominate in the Maghreb until the classical period.